Cotton
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation).
Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant (Gossypium spp.), a shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions of both the Old World and the New World. The fiber is most often spun into thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today. The English name descends from the Arabic word al qutun, (whence also came the Spanish word algodón) meaning cotton fiber.
Cotton fiber (once processed to remove seeds and traces of wax, protein, etc.) consists of nearly pure cellulose, a natural polymer. Cotton production is very efficient, in the sense that, ten percent or less of the weight is lost in subsequent processing to convert the raw cotton bolls into pure fiber. The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton fibers a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency. Each fibre is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton boll (seed case) is opened the fibres dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into a fine yarn.
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Cultivation
Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long growing season, plenty of sunshine and water during the period of growth, and dry weather for harvest. In general, these conditions are met within tropical and warm subtropical latitudes in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Planting time in spring varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June.
Cotton plant
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Main article: Gossypium
Cotton fiber originates from the cotton plant, an important crop in tropical climates and warm temperate climates. Commercial species of cotton plant are Gossypium hirsutum (U.S.A. and Australia), G. arboreum, G. herbaceum (Asia), and G. barbadense (Egypt).
History
Cotton has been used to make very fine lightweight cloth in areas with tropical climates for millennia. Some authorities claim that it was likely that the Egyptians had cotton as early as 12,000 BC, and evidence has been found of cotton in Mexican caves (cotton cloth and fragments of bloody fibre interwoven with feathers and fur) which dated back to approximately 7,000 years ago. There is clear archaeological evidence that people in South America and India domesticated different species of cotton independently thousands of years ago.
The earliest reference to cotton is in India. Cotton has been grown in India/Pakistan for more than 6,000 years since the pre-Harappan period, and it is later referred to in the Rig-Veda, composed in 3000 BC. Two thousand years later, the famous Greek historian Herodotus wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which grow wild there, the fruit of which is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. The Indians make their clothes of this tree wool". (Book iii. 106)
In Peru, cotton was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the Moche and Nazca. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico in the early 1500s found the peoples there wearing cotton clothing and growing it.
During the late mediaeval period, cotton became known as an imported fibre in northern Europe, without any knowledge of what it came from other than that it was a plant; people in the region, familiar only with animal fibres (wool from sheep), could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie.". This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool".
By the end of the 16th century AD, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Africa, Eurasia and the Americas.
The Indian cotton processing industry was eclipsed during the British colonial rule, as part of the British mercantile policy of deliberate and systematic de-industrialization of India, which forced the closing of Indian factories and processing facilities. The intent of this British policy was to ensure that colonized lands supplied raw materials and that Britain should retain a monopoly on manufacturing. In addition, the invention of the spinning jenny (1764) and Arkwright's spinning frame (1769) enabled cheap mass-production of cotton cloth in the UK. Production capacity was further improved by the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. As a result of these policies and developments, British traders developed a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibres were sourced initially from their colonies, processed into cotton cloth in the mills of Lancashire, and then re-exported back on British ships to their captive colonial markets in West Africa, India, and China (via colonized Shanghai and Hong Kong). Later, when the superiority of the American varieties of cotton was established, owing primarily to the length of the fibers, the British started purchasing cotton from slave plantations in the United States and the Caribbean. Due to the enormous quantities of raw cotton required to make cheap bulk exports, British industrialists quickly abandoned expensive raw cotton produced in India in favour of mass-produced cotton from the southern United States, which was much cheaper as it was produced by unpaid slaves. By the mid nineteenth century, "King Cotton" had become the backbone of the southern American economy, and today, roughly 90% of the world's cotton crop is of the long-staple American variety.
In the United States, growing the three crops, cotton, indigo and tobacco, historically was the leading occupation of slaves. After emancipation, the share cropping system evolved, which in many cases differed little from the systems of slavery. During the American Civil War, American cotton exports slumped due to a Union blockade on Southern ports, prompting the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, to turn to Egyptian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in Egyptian cotton plantations and the Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton in favour of cheap exports from the United States, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876.
Production and processing
Today cotton is produced in many parts of the world, including every continent. Cotton plants have been selectively bred so that each plant grows more fiber. In 2002, cotton was grown on 330,000 km² of farmland. 47 billion pounds (21 million t) of raw cotton worth 20 billion USD was grown that year.
The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as fertilizers and insecticides, although a very small number of farmers are moving towards an organic model of production and organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered cotton containing a gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm, has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.
Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are generally used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton and generally used after application of a defoliant or natural defoliation occurring after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.
The logistics of cotton harvesting and processing have been improved by the development of the cotton module builder, a machine that compresses harvested cotton into a large block, which is then covered with a tarp and temporarily stored at the edge of the field.
Research and promotion
Beginning as a self-help program in the mid-1960s, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program was organized by U.S. Upland cotton producers in response to cotton's steady decline in market share. At that time, producers voted to set up a per-bale assessment system to fund the Program with built-in safeguards to protect their investments. With the passage of the Cotton Research & Promotion Act of 1966, the Program joined forces and began battling synthetic competitors and re-establishing markets for cotton. Today, the success of this Program has made cotton the best selling fiber in the U.S. and one of the best selling fibers in the world.
Administered by the Cotton Board and conducted by Cotton Incorporated, the Cotton Research & Promotion Program is the program that is continuously working to increase the demand for and profitability of cotton through various research and promotion activities. The Program is funded by U.S. cotton producers and importers.
Egyptian cotton
Egyptian cotton is considered to be one of the best types of cotton, and is produced in various quality levels in long-staple (LS) and extra long-staple (ELS).
Uses
Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth, used to make highly absorbent bath towels and robes, denim, used to make blue jeans, chambray, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "blue-collar"), along with corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets are also often made from cotton. Cotton is also used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting. While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with synthetic fibers such as polyester or rayon.
In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishnets, coffee filters, tents and in bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fibre, as is the modern US dollar bill and federal stationery. Fire hoses were once made of cotton.
The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which after refining can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left is generally fed to livestock. In the past, cotton seeds were used by women as an abortifacient.
Pests
The greatest ecological threat to cotton plants is the boll weevil. During the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, boll weevil infestations caused significant damage to annual cotton crops in the southern United States, resulting in frequent economic depressions in rural areas.
Fair trade
Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries. This has led to 'fair trade' cotton clothing or footwear (Veja Sneakers) being available in some countries. The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from Cameroon, Mali and Senegal.[1]
Old British cotton yarn measures
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1 thread = 54 inches (about 137 cm)
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1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yards or about 109 m)
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1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yards or about 768 m)
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1 spindle = 18 hanks (15,120 yards or about 13,826 m)
Irrigation and Agriculture
Experience and Options in
Yehuda Sheva
TAHAL Consulting Eng. Ltd,
Prepared for Thematic Review IV.2:
Assessment of Irrigation Options
For further information see http://www.dams.org
This is one of 126 contributing papers to the World Commission on Dams. It reflects solely the views
of its authors. The views, conclusions, and recommendations are not intended to represent the views of
the Commission. The views of the Commission are laid out in the Commission's final report "Dams and
Development: A New Framework for Decision-Making".
/
Irrigation and Agriculture Experience and
Options
in
Yehuda Shevah
TAHAL Consulting Eng. Ltd
ABSTRACT
Advancement in water resources development, agricultural production and irrigation
technology are matched by the magnitude of the still facing problems of quantity,
quality and cost of water for irrigation. Major constraints include among others:
water scarcity and fluctuation, depleting resources, frequent droughts, degradation
of water quality; prohibitive costs of dams and water reservoirs and technological
uncertainty and high cost of non-conventional sources, rapid urbanization,
abandonment and desertification of agricultural land.
To maintain water supply and agricultural growth, under a dynamic and changing
world, new policies related to future needs for water, food security and agricultural
production have to be crystallized, aiming to make the agricultural industry freely
competing with industrial and domestic users. Emphasis should be on integrated
water management encompassing: conventional and non-conventional sources,
conservation of rivers, water courses and aquifers, increased water use efficiency
and efficient allocation across sub-sectors and users, while preventing local and
regional conflicts and considering social, cultural and environmental goals.
Expansion of irrigation systems should be on the basis of reallocation of water
gained through improved efficiency, modified cropping patterns favouring less
water-demanding crops and improvement of field efficiency
Furthermore, international and regional commitment to avert water crisis and
cooperation in agricultural production, water resources development, water transfer
and interconnection of water systems has to be promoted.
At the country level, the prevailing arid and semi arid conditions of
irrigation imperative for the development of intensive agriculture and food
production. Available renewable potential is already fully utilized, while the
widening gap between supply and demand is made up with marginal resources,
especially, reclaimed municipal wastewater which is becoming an increasingly
important source of water for agricultural and industrial purposes.
The average annual renewable potential amount to some 1,600 MCM, of which about
95% are already exploited and used for domestic consumption and irrigation. About
80% of the water potential lies in the northern parts, hence, large quantities of water
have to be conveyed over 200 km to supply the water needs in the south. Surface
water contributes about 33% and groundwater supply the difference, mainly from
two major aquifers. Artificial recharge is practiced through spreading basins and
single and dual purpose deep wells connected to the National Water Carrier.
Currently, about 275 MCM of effluents, treated to varying degrees, are already
utilized for irrigation, about 65% of the generated wastewater. Cloud seeding has
been practiced for last 30 years, yielding a significant increase of 10 - 15% in
rainfall. Several small and medium desalination plants have been installed, for
desalination of brackish and sea water for domestic water supply, including a 10,000
cum/day sea water desalination plant in Eilat.
The quality of supplied water in
major aquifers (100 - 200 mg/l of chlorides) and excessive salinity in the non
renewable aquifers in the south (more than 1500 mg/l of chlorides). Due to irrigation,
a gradual increase in salinity and other pollutants is observed, resulting in the
increase in mineral and other pollutants contents in groundwater. Based on past
trends, more than 25% of available groundwater will have a chlorides content of
more than 250 mg/l by the year 2025.
decision making with regards to future development and management of water and
agricultural production. The technologies which have brought about, the dramatic
increases in water use efficiency and agricultural production will be harnessed to
develop a highly productive agriculture, less demanding in land and water and
adequately competing with other industrial and economic users. The total cultivated
area and water available for irrigation will not significantly change, but the water
quality will be dramatically reduced, due to large substitution of fresh water with
treated effluents and brackish water.
Further improvement of water use efficiency (improved distribution systems and ultra
low volume irrigation) and techniques suitable for irrigation with marginal
resources and soil amelioration will be applied, contributing to sustainable land use
and conservation of open space and agricultural land. The use of new cultivation
techniques and development of salinity tolerant crops adjusted to irrigation with
brackish and secondary effluents will be expanded.
Various innovations are expected to influence the water balance including: induced
rainfall, improved forecasting techniques of rainfall and water balance, elucidation
of the global warming and its effects on water resources and, possibly, economic
competitive water desalination systems.
Institutional reform is foreseen, with sector deregulation, leading to full cost recovery
systems taking account of access to water, ability to pay and other relevant social
aspects, water trading (voting rights will replace existing water rights), control of
performance. Seeing water as an economic good dealt with financial and economic
terms will also induce the reallocation of water resources, leading to efficient
production and allocation systems, adapted to open markets and free competitive
trade.
On a regional scale, Israeli agriculture is very small and bears no competition to the
regional agriculture. Most of the Israeli innovations and accumulated experience in
agriculture, irrigation technology and water management are easily adaptable to
various conditions and are widely used in developing and developed world alike.
The strategic issues of water industry and agricultural production in
possible solutions to achieve sustainable water economy and best practices available
are discussed in the following, covering constraints and anticipated initiatives and
development to achieve long term sustainability.
Section 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 State Background
Physiography.
6.0 million (1997), of which 90% lives in urban areas and 10% in rural areas.
is located in the Mediterranean region. The land is divisible into three longitudinal
strips running from north to south, comprising a coastal plain, a long inland
escarpment and a large desert area in the south. The main river is the
principle mountains are the Judean hills,
The general topography is flat in the coastal plain and flat to hilly elsewhere.
Seismicity is low, the most seismic area being the
Soils. The major soil types in the Coastal Plain are sand dune, Pleistocene sand and
sandstone. The soils in the north of the country are alluvial loamy and clayey, and in
the
calcareous soils with loess deposits, loess and rocky "hamada".
Climate.
annual rainfall in the Coastal Plain varies from 600 mm in the north to 150 mm in the
south. In the lower elevations of the Hilly Zone (150 m to 600 m above mean sealevel)
the average annual rainfall varies from 700 mm in the north near Safad to 500
mm near
in the Negev varies from 400 mm at Ashkelon (near the shore) to 200 mm at
and 30 mm at Eilat. The average annual precipitation is 360 mm/year and the
total mean annual precipitation volume is 7.2 km3 The country has about four rainy
months (November – March). The climatic conditions of
rain during the long summer, make irrigation imperative for the development of
intensive agriculture.
Population.
million in 1980 and 6.0 million in 1998. About 90% lives in urban areas and about
10% in rural areas. The population is concentrated to a considerable degree in and
around the three cities of
cent of the urban population (60 per cent of the total population) lived in the
conurbation of these three centers.
Urban and Rural Population. The rural population amounts to about 0.5 million of
which the number of farming households is 25,000, or about 100,000. The rural
population has decreased from about 28% in the fifties to the current 9%. The number
of farming households was also reduced from about 75,000 in the sixties to the current
25,000. The farmers were replaced by hired labour, which contributes about 50,000 of
the total employment in agriculture. 3.7 per cent, or approximately 75,000 persons,
were engaged in agricultural activities in 1995. Farm employment contributes 3.1 per
cent, of the total employment or approximately 67,000 persons.
Land Resources. Out of the total area of about 21 million ha, arable land amounts
to 452,000 ha. The area actually irrigated is 230,000 ha or approximately 50 per cent
of the arable land. The land holding allotted to a farming unit in the collective and
cooperative settlements vary in size according to the soil and climatic conditions. The
average holding is 7 ha.
Land Ownership. The major part of the land in
Jewish National Fund. The land is given on lease for 49 years to groups or individuals
able and willing to cultivate it.
Farm Settlements. Most of the arable land is controlled by collective (Kibbutzim)
and co-operative (Moshavei Ovdim) settlements, totalling about 25,000 farm units.. A
small part of the agricultural land belongs to small private farmers who reside in rural
villages. There are also a few larger commercial farms.
1.2 Agricultural Production
stemming from the need to overcome the scarcity in natural resources, particularly
water and arable land. Lack of water, shortage of labor and the need for
conservation of open space and the environment dictate the ongoing accelerated
development towards intensive production incorporating advanced engineering
techniques and biotechnology.
Agricultural production encompasses citrus, avocado and deciduous tree plantations,
field crops of which cotton is the major crop, vegetables and flowers and fish ponds.
Most of arable land estimated at about 430,000 ha is cultivated and about 50% is
irrigated. The extent of the irrigated area varies and depends on the water resources
capacity and agricultural commodities market, within a particular year. Major
characteristics of the Israeli agriculture are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Cultivated Area, Major Crops and Irrigation water Use, 1998
Major Crops Cultivated Area (000 ha) Irrigation
Dry Farming Irrigated
Land
Water
MCM
Tree Plantations 15 75 540
Field Crops 195 72 200
Industrial Crops - Cotton 35 170
Horticulture 5 35 190
Aqua Culture 3 100
Total 215 220 1200
Source: Compiled from Central Planning Authority, Ministry of Agriculture, 1998.
Israel’s Agricultural Production and Yields per Unit, 1995
Crop Yield ton /ha
Tomatoes -open field 60-80
Tomatoes - Greenhouse 200-300
Potatoes 45-55
Apples 42-45
seeds, meat, coffee and sugar, which are more than offset by a wide range of
agricultural products for export as shown below:
Despite the continuous decrease in the number of farmers, agriculture still plays a
significant role in the national economy, contributing, in 1996, about 1.9 % of the
GDP, 7% of exports and 3.1 % of the total work force (66,500). Agriculture is
particularly important for the outlying areas where agriculture provides the sole
means of livelihood for the population. Agricultural export amount to US $ 1.42
billion (7% of the total export). In addition, the production of agricultural inputs
stands at over $2 billion, of which 70% is exported.
1.3 Water Resources
a. Conventional Water Resources
The average annual precipitation is estimated at about 10,000 MCM of which 60 %
evaporates, and 10 % flows down the dry river beds and the few perennial rivers to
discharge into the Mediterranean in the west, or into the
Sea in the east. The remaining 30 % seeps into the ground and is gathered in natural
aquifers, or flows into
into the ground is also lost to deeper underground layers or drains into the sea.
Lake Kinneret – the
The Coastal Aquifer - along the coastal plain of the
The Mountain Aquifer - under the central north-south (
Additional smaller regional resources are located in the
Galilee,
Arava, see Table 2.
Table 2. Long Term Annual Average Quantities of Renewable water
for Major Water Resources
Resource Replenishable Quantities
(MCM)
The Coastal Aquifer 320
The Mountain Aquifer 370
Additional Regional Resources 410
Total Annual Average 1,800
The average annual renewable potential amount to some 1,800 MCM, of which about
95% are already exploited and used for domestic consumption and irrigation. Other
sources include intermittent water runoff and reclaimed wastewater
About 80% of the water potential lies in the northern parts and only 20% in the south,
while most of the population and arable land are found in the central and southern
regions, hence, large quantities of water have to be conveyed over 200 km to supply
the water needs.
Surface water - The
in the north east of
confluence of three tributaries providing about 520 MCM of a total average inflow of
about 650 MCM/year. The
Kineret, having a surface area of about 170 sq km and a total volume of 4,300
MCM.
The Water level at the lake is regulated by the Deganya Gates maintaining an
operational volume of 590 MCM, between -209 and -213 m. Of the annual yield
about 380 MCM (20 cum./sec.) on average are pumped out of the watershed, lifted
over 400 m from an elevation of -212 m below sea level. while the remaining is used
by consumers within the watershed. The Kineret watershed contributes about 33% of
the total resources.
Groundwater. Groundwater are available from two major aquifers: the Coastal
Aquifer - a relatively shallow sand aquifer, lying along a deep limestone - Dolomite
Aquifer, named Yarkon-Taninim Aquifer or the Mountain quifer.
The Mountain Aquifer main water body is a 150 km long between Taninim in the
north and Beer Sheva in the south, underlying the
Natural outlets are the Yarkon and the Taninim springs with a possible outlet to the
MCM/year, including 40 MCM of brackish water, maintaining a water table level at
+16.5 m. Artificial recharge using excess supply from the Kineret is practiced through
single and dual purpose deep wells connected to the National Water Carrier.
The Coastal Aquifer. The aquifer extends over some 120 km along the
Mediterranean cost from the
total area of about 1,800 sq. km. Rainfall, storm water and return flow from irrigation.
Also artificial recharge of storm water and excess supply from the NC is practiced
through several spreading basins and boreholes. The safe yield which is fully utilized
is estimated at about 300 MCM/year. A certain level of sea water intrusion is allowed
for optimal exploitation of the aquifer. The interface was stabilized at about 1500 m
from the coast.
Being a sand aquifer with a large holding capacity, the aquifer is used for short and
long term storage, allowing a normal supply in drought years. However, due to
frequent droughts, the trend was for excess pumpage and depletion of reserves,
endangering the sustainability and the long term functioning and conservation of the
aquifer. To counter balance these trends, artificial recharge has been intensified and
pumpage is carefully monitored, while consumers reliance on local supply has been
reduced.
Other Aquifers. In addition to the two major aquifers, there are several smaller and
localized aquifers in various parts of the country. The most significant is the Western
Galilee Aquifer, having a safe yield of about 60 MCM/year.
b. Non - Conventional Water Resources and Conservation
Reclaimed Wastewater Effluents. The use of reclaimed and treated municipal
wastewater is becoming an increasingly important source of water for agricultural and
industrial purposes. Currently, about 275 MCM of effluents, treated to varying
degrees, are already utilized for irrigation, about 65% of the generated wastewater.
Treated effluents are used for irrigation of industrial crops and fruit crops, before or
after artificial recharge into a confined aquifer.
Intercepted runoff and artificial recharge. Surface runoff although sporadic and
infrequent is being utilized and several regional and local schemes were established.
The schemes divert storm flow into surface reservoirs or to spreading grounds
where it percolate through sand layers into the underlying aquifer. An annual average
of about 40 MCM are intercepted out of a potential of 135 MCM/year of storm
water. In addition to large schemes, they are many local runoff interception schemes
with a total capacity of about 130 MCM.
Cloud Seeding. Cloud seeding with silver iodide crystals has been practiced in
for last 30 years on a countrywide basis. Over the years ground incinerators were
replaced by special air-crafts using brine as the seeding material. Controlled seeding
experiments that were conducted between 1960 and 1975 provided the scientific
justification for the routine seeding since. It is assumed that a significant increase of
10 - 15% in rainfall is achieved.
Desalination: Many small and medium desalination plants are in operation for the
desalination of brackish and sea water, mostly for domestic water supply in the
cum/day of water from brackish groundwater and sea water.
c. Water Quality
The quality of water varies from 10 mg/l of chlorides in water of the
River, 200 mg/l in water of the Kineret and up to 1500 mg/l and more in
groundwater. Groundwater exploitation is controlled to prevent sea water intrusion to
the Coastal Aquifer and movement of saline water bodies within the Karstic
Limestone Aquifer. However, despite the limits on water withdrawal, due to man
made activity, there is an increase in the mineral and other pollutants contents in
groundwater.
Based on past trends, groundwater with chlorides contents of more than 250 mg/l that
was 20% in 1990 and is expected to increase to 30% within 20 years. Regular
monitoring of water resources, including: replenishment and recharge, water table
levels, abstraction, salinity (chlorides) and pollution (nitrates) data are regularly
monitored and maps restricting land use activities are produced to protect vulnerable
aquifers.
d. Water Supply and Demand
Water Production and Supply. As of 1997, annual water production reached
approximately 2,000 MCM, of which 75% were potable and the remainder was
marginal (treated effluents, brackish water and runoff water), as shown in Table 2.
Normally, water supply fluctuates from year to year in accordance with the annual
rainfall. Groundwater constitutes between 55-70 per cent of the total and is adjusted
to availability of other resources.
Water Demand. Annual water demand amount to about 2000 MCM/year, of which
about one half is used for agriculture and the remaining is used by the urban and
industrial sectors. The agriculture sector used 65% of water production, the domestic
sector used 30% and the rest was consumed by industry (Table 3).
Domestic Consumption. All settlements are served by public waterworks supplying
an average of about 250 liters/capita/day. Currently, the urban sector consumes about
700 MCM and will increase to about 1,300 MCM with the increase in population and
living standards.
Agricultural Consumption. With a current consumption of 1250 MCM (60% of
fresh resources, compared to 77% in the sixties), agriculture is still the largest
consumer, but the consumption in this sector is strongly influenced by the annual
rainfall, and during drought periods fresh water allocation is drastically reduced.
Available water resources and water balance for the years 1997 - 2020 are given in
Table 3.
Table 3: Water Supply and Demand –
Water Supply
Year Population
(Million)
Water Sources
Surface
Water
Ground
water
Brackish
Water
Treated
Effluents
Desalinated
Total
1998 6.0 600 1020 125 275 10 2030
2010 7.4 645 1050 165 470 100 2430
2020 8.6 660 1075 180 565 200 2680
Water Demand
Year Urban Agricultural Irrigation Total
Sector Fresh Brackish Effluents Total
1998 770 850 100 250 1200 1970
2010 1060 680 85 495 1260 2430
2020 1330 600 60 565 1350 2680
Source:
e. Water Storage
To overcome spatial and temporal gaps between supply and demand, most of the
country’s fresh water resources are inter-connected into the National Water Carrier.
The carrier conveys a compounded amount of about 1,100 MCM over 180 km from
north to south and is the backbone of the national system which connects between
the seasonal storage of
aquifers.. An integrated network of pumping stations, reservoirs, canals and
pipelines allows the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater sources. Excess
supply is recharged into the aquifers. and used in dry years when the yield of
surface resources is minimal.
f. Financing and Pricing of water
Water Cost. The main water system is characterized by heavy investments in
water elevation, large conveyance systems and treatment plants. The average water
cost indicated by the National Water Co. - Mekorot, which supply about 60% of
the total consumption, is US C 31/cum. The cost includes: capital costs (41%),
fixed costs (26%) and variable costs (33%).
Water tariff. Water prices for the various consumers are fixed by a parliamentary
committee adopting an Increasing Block Rate Prices system for payment for the
first 50, 80 and 100% of the allocation. Different block rates are fixed by the
Government and differ for the various sources and region, while a penalty is levied
on consumers exceeding their allocation. Current tariffs have totally eliminated the
subsidy for water supplied to the urban and industrial sectors, while charges for
irrigation are still subsidized at about 18%.
Financial Support. The Government through the relevant ministries provides grants
and low interest loans for the improvement and expansion of water supply systems.
Funds are channeled through special development and rehabilitation funds.
Section 2: CONTRIBUTIONS OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
Irrigation Water Use. Early irrigation development was based on surface irrigation
but due to water shortage there was a gradual transition to pressurized irrigation and
water saved on the process was used to increase the area under irrigation as shown in
Table 4.
Table 4: Cultivated land and irrigation development 1950 - 1998
Year Total cultivated
area (000ha)
Irrigation Water
(MCM)
Irrigation Systems
Total Irrigated Total cum/ha
1950 335 47 410 8700 Gravity
1960 415 135 1020 7560 Sprinklers
1970 415 173 1240 7150 Sprinklers
1980 425 205 1200 5850 Micro-irrigation
1990 435 220 1230 5590 Micro-irrigation
1998 435 220 1200 5450 Micro-irrigation
Over the last 50 years, the irrigated land has increased from less than 50,000 ha to
about 220,000 ha, while water used for irrigation has increased from about 400 MCM
to about 1200 MCM/year. Currently, the agricultural sector consumes about 1200
MCM/year to irrigate about 220,000 ha. This quantity has not changed significantly
over the last 30 years, despite the significant increase in irrigated land and
agricultural production.
Irrigation water comprises of fresh and marginal water, of which:
fresh water - 840 MCM
Brackish water - 100
Treated effluents: 260
Total - 1200 Mcm
Due to scarce water resources, there has been continuous endeavor to improve
irrigation efficiencies and reduce unit application of water by improving the efficiency
of irrigation methods and using advanced techniques for system management. By
mid-1970’s sprinkler irrigation was the dominant technology while drip irrigation was
making its first steps in irrigation of vegetables and flowers. The breakthrough was the
expansion of drip irrigation to field crops and especially cotton which allowed cotton
production on marginal soils, utilizing brackish water and municipal effluents and the
introduction of fertigation, and advanced pest and weed control and other cultivation
techniques.
Irrigation Technology. Efficient irrigation was possible due to the introduction of
water saving measures coupled with a gradual change in cropping patterns and a shift
toward crops that do not require high quality water. Technological breakthrough in
low volume irrigation technologies such as drip irrigation and micro-sprinklers reduce
water loss and increase water use efficiency. Computer-assisted irrigation
management enhances these results. The wide scale adoption of low volume
irrigation systems (e.g., drip, micro-sprinklers) and automation has increased the
average efficiency to 90% as compared to 64% for furrow irrigation.
Irrigation Water control. Computers were introduced to allow real-time operation
of the irrigation systems, providing precision, reliability and savings in manpower.
Soil and plant moisture sensors are also used to provide information on moisture,
allowing automatic operation of the system when needed. Further irrigation
efficiency is being attempted by regulating water application to each individual
plant, using individual moisture sensing emitters. The root volume can also be
controlled, leading to a shortening of the crop growing cycle.
Irrigation Efficiency. The wide scale adoption of low volume irrigation systems
(e.g., drip, micro-sprinklers) and automation has increased the average efficiency to
90% as compared to 64% for furrow irrigation. Other factors include:
water metering
water pricing policy,
computerization and remote control of irrigation
fertigation - fertilizer application via the irrigation systems
As a result, the average requirement of water per unit of land area has decreased form
8,700 m3/ha in 1975 to 5,450 m3/ha in 1998. At the same time agricultural output
has increased twelve fold, while total water consumption by the sector has remained
almost constant.
Drainage And Flood Protection. In the 1920's and 1930's much effort was invested
to drain swamps and wet lands to redeem land for agricultural use. The early work
was followed by large scale regional operations, enabling control of whole river
courses or drainage basins. The emphasis in these drainage works has been on:
(a) Improvement of poorly drained soils
(b) Flood protection
(c) Diversion of runoff water from agricultural lands
(d) Swamp drainage
(e) Concentration of the runoff from local or regional drainage works and
their integration into the water supply network.
However because of high peat content of some of the reclaimed soils and subsequent
deterioration, due to frequent fire outbreaks, dust storms and subsidence, some of the
soils become unsuitable for intensive production and abandoned. In the
the adopted solution, to the neglected soil peats of the upper
the re-flooding of part of the area, creating a new shallow lake and maintaining a
high water in the rest of the area. New drainage and irrigation techniques and
installations were employed to create a new agro-ecology, in which land cultivation
is adjusted to the sustainable needs of the terrestrial and aquatic ecology of the Kineret
watershed.
Environmental aspects of Irrigation. Agricultural production is considered to be
compatible with the environmental protection and issues of open space, soil
conservation and protection of the natural vegetation and water resources can greatly
benefit from appropriate agricultural production systems. In accordance, sustainable
use of brackish and effluents without detrimental effects on the environment, water
conservation and extremely efficient use of water in agriculture alleviating
environmental pollution are attempted.
Short, medium and long term targets are being evolved, as related to the following:
efficient production to avoid agricultural waste;
reduced use of fertilizer and pesticides;
use of brackish and wastewater for irrigation
production of functional food.
controlled plant nutrition and released/leaching of nutrients and pesticides, under
development of alternative soil phyto-sanitation techniques
maximum recycling of wastewater, sludge and compost, and,
reduction of salinity constituents and potentially toxic trace elements in effluents
understanding the long term effects of irrigation with effluents, and
rational use of land and water resources
Pricing of water for irrigation. The average water cost indicated by the National
Water Co. - Mekorot. is US C 31/cum (1996). Water charges for the various
consumers are fixed by a parliamentary committee. An Increasing Block Rate Prices
system is applied, leading to 10 - 15% savings in water used for irrigation, as shown
in Table 5.
Table 5: Block Rate Tariffs for irrigation water supply
Mekorot, 1996
Water Source Part of Allocation
(%)
Price
(US C/cum)
Fresh Water 1 - 50 15
50 - 80 18
80 - 100 21
Average 19
Tertiary Effluents Low Season 14
High Season 15
Secondary Effluents Average Price 12
Source:
Government Subsidy. Currently Government support amounts to bout 20% of the
cost. The current tariffs are however on an increasing scale, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Water Cost and Tariff for Irrigation, Mekorot Co. 1986- 1997
Year Cost Tariff
(US C/cum) (US C/cum) (% of Cost)
1986 14.3 10 70
1993 36.4 16.1 44
1994 34.4 17.1 50
1995 32.8 19.0 58
1996 30.5 21.1 69
1997 28.2 23.2 82
Source: Mekorot Water Co. Financial Statements, various years.
A substantial increase in water charges coupled with a restructuring of the national
water company - Mekorot has resulted in a significant reduction in Government
subsidy from 50% in 1992 to about 20% in 1996.
Financial, Institutional and Management Programs. The Government through
the relevant ministries provides grants and low interest loans for the rehabilitation
and expansion of water supply systems and construction of wastewater and other
marginal water reuse schemes.
Investment capital is channeled through:
Water Networks Rehabilitation Fund
National Sewerage Programme
Irrigation systems Improvement Fund
Wastewater Renovation and reuse Programme
Future Prospects. Previous achievements in irrigation and irrigation technology are
matched by the magnitude of the problems still facing irrigated agriculture, centered
around the quantity, cost and quality of water available for irrigation. Future irrigated
agriculture, as an important industry, would require improved systems, capital
intensive and significantly less demanding in water, yet economically productive to
compete freely with industrial and domestic users.
The total cultivated area and water available for irrigation will not significantly
change over the planning period, but the water quality will be dramatically reduced,
by large substitution of fresh water with treated effluents.
Other changes will include:
transition and shifting of agriculture production to the arid south
substitution of fresh water for brackish and wastewater effluents for irrigation
development of salt tolerant crops and crop diversification
environmental protection/recycling of agricultural waste
adaptation to open markets and free competitive trade
Section 3 – CHALLENGES AND DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES
Global climatic change. Change in the weather pattern have to be considered as
uncertainty in future scenarios and their consequences on food production are not
understood. Increases in spatial and inter-annual climate variability, decreasing
precipitation, higher frequency of extreme rainfalls and droughts are already
apparent in the region and climatic change is considered a long term risk. Likely
changes would jeopardize the sustainability of resources and threatens the existence
of both rainfed and irrigated farming systems by raising average temperatures,
lowering average rainfall and increasing its variability.
Rain simulation studies for the coastal areas of the
decrease of rainfall around 10-15% and an increase in winter temperature of 1.5°C
in the coastal areas and by 1.75°C to 2.5°C inland. The impact of climate change on
precipitation and water resources in general and crop evapo-transpiration in
particular should therefore be considered in water resources and irrigation
development plans, through improved predictive capacity and monitoring.
Decline in water storage volume. Surface reservoirs are threatened by the inevitable
decline of storage capacity due to heavy sedimentation. In
reservoir storage is at present 1 to 2.5 % per year in
3% in
amplified if global climate change leads to more extreme and violent events, provoking
increased erosion in the watershed. The loss in storage volume has detrimental
economic implications as well as loss of water resources
Land and environmental conservation. The conversion of land into areas of intensive
agriculture is inevitable and in many ways compatible with the functioning of
ecosystems. However, because of rapid increase in population and urbanization, the
fragmenting landscapes and ecosystems for intensive agriculture, the pressure on natural
resources is increasing. Land fragmentation, due to the rapid increase of the population,
would affect the future viability of farming systems, while land ownership and
uncontrolled urban expansion are other constraints in developing profitable agriculture.
There are also serious concerns about possible degradation of the environment, as the
genetic resources of native species are under a serious threat of extinction.
.
Furthermore, irrigation is strongly related to degradation of water quality and irrigated
land. The reasons are multiple:
Increasing intensity of inputs in agriculture
Increasing pollution from urban and industrial areas
Saline intrusion in over-exploited coastal aquifers
long term effects of using brackish water and sewage effluents for irrigation.
Soil salinization and water logging
Unsustainable development of marginal lands
Water and soil quality. Given current measurable negative effects of pollution
generated in all sectors, soil and groundwater quality could be deteriorated, especially
where recycling of water is practiced, leading to an increase of undesirable chemical
loads in soil and water. To avoid irreversible processes, vigorous actions will have to
be undertaken, including improvements in irrigation techniques, soil cultivation and
cropping systems.
Structural adjustment. Agriculture which dominated the national economy in the early
years has gradually decreased as reflected by the sector contribution to the national
product. Irrigation has greatly contributed to the increase of agricultural production and
to the economy. In cereal terms, an irrigated field yields 6 Tons/ha as compared to 1.5
Tons/ha for non–irrigated field. However, the role of irrigated agriculture is decreasing
in relative terms, as other sectors develop more rapidly.
Nonetheless, irrigated agriculture still consumes more than 60% of available water
resources, while contributing only 2 % of the GDP. Fierce competition with other
markets and reduced government involvement in terms of protective quotas, direct
support and subsidies were the major factors contributing to the fall. Moreover,
because of the current difficulties facing agriculture, coupled with dwindling land
and water resources and large dependence on cheap labor, the most able farmers are
giving up farming activity, adversely affecting the social structure and the economy
of the rural areas of
As the result, the Israeli agriculture is undergoing a transformation both in
production and in marketing, as reflected in:
change in cropping systems and crop diversification,
diminishing use of fresh water for irrigation and its substitution with brackish
water and wastewater
increasing competition from external markets.
Production systems. Israeli agriculture has reached a turning point in which the
existing R&D infrastructure and the highly capable industry are being diverted
from conventional production into advanced production systems. The Israeli science
has already acquired the basic capability in genetic engineering and biotechnology
which is essential to support large scale production of innovative products and it is
ripe to generate a range of new products for new markets. Therefor it is assumed
that agriculture could further expand and flourish, provided that a technological
and industrial approach is adopted in which agriculture is diversified into the
production of original sophisticated products, making efficient use of scarce
resources of land, water and labor to yield the highest economic return possible.
Far reaching economic and organizational adjustments to be made within the sector
would encompass production, economic framework and organizational structure,
including rapid industrialization of the farm settlement and reduced degree of
cooperation within the farming communities, at the local and regional levels.
Changes are also anticipated within the family production units, the supporting
cooperative organizations and especially a change of focus from direct production
to agro-industry and services.
New production systems are being envisaged, having the capability to:
compete with other economic sectors on available water resources
produce high value crops, innovative highly productive and less demanding in
water
favorably competing with import from external markets.
Other aspects being considered are:
the transition of agricultural production from the temperate coastal plain to the
arid south and the related effects on production and the desert ecology
International and Regional Aspects
Regional Water Resources. Population projections for the
population growth, from 350 Millions in 1995 to an estimated 613 Millions in 2025
(medium UN projections for 18 Middle East and
other hand, due to the arid to semi-arid environment, leading to water scarcity and
the increasing demand by the growing population, the availability of fresh water per
capita is falling. Although the region is not homogeneous with respect to its
dependence on energy, water resources per capita, economic development,
contribution of agriculture to the national economy, and the capability of institutions
to face the future challenges, water is equally critically important and will become
more and more precious both in economic and social terms.
Therefore, to alleviate some of the inevitable conflicts, further development of
potential conventional and non-conventional water resources should be pursued,
while employing a water conservation, and improved water use efficiency policy.
Rural development and rural stability. Given the demographic pressure and the
underlying concerns about social stability. Maintaining an equilibrium between
rural and urban development is an important driving force behind the current
agricultural and rural development with expansion of irrigated areas, undertaken by
some countries in the region. In general. complete food self-sufficiency is neither
feasible nor desirable, taking into consideration the social and environmental domain
and potential and prevailing marketing system for agricultural products; farmers
financial capabilities in investment in cash-crops and export-oriented products and
adaptation to modern technology and above all, the future of non-economic
subsistence farming systems, dependent on subsidized inputs.
It is however recognized that evolution towards a market economy must be
controlled to avoid social instability and access to the free international market will
be adjusted to the development of efficient farming enterprises and the potential of
other sectors of the economy to generate jobs and absorb rural migration.
Food Supply. Average nutritional intake per capita in the countries of the Middle
East Region (MENA) (3070 Kcal) is reasonable by world standards. 56% supplied
by cereals, 16% by animal products and 28 % by other products (oil, sugar,
vegetables, fish, etc.). However, despite an important and steady increase in grain
production during recent decades (2.7 % per year), MENA has not been able to fully
meet the rising demand of increasing populations and has increasingly relied on
food imports to balance the supply of staple foods. In 1995 the region relied on the
international market to meet 33% of its cereal consumption.
Current food imports by the MENA region (55 MT) are equivalent to 50 % of the
net surplus generated by the
food imports makes the region a significant user of “virtual” water. On the basis of 1
m3 per kg of grain, the average virtual water supply per capita is 110 m3/year.
Thus, its is likely that the regional dependency on the international market will
increase, assuming that grain import would increase to about 100 millions tons for
2025.
Free Trade and World Market. Preferential trade in the international food market,
over-production in the world agricultural market and financing problems are a
hindrance for fair trading and competition.
Regional Cooperation. Regional cooperation on water resource management
should be promoted with emphasis on research and development and technology
transfer and trans-boundary water development and transfer. Effort should be placed
on drought and flood response, rainfall harvesting and surface and underground
storage.
Since the late fifties,
in Asia, Africa and
as irrigation technology, water management, applied agricultural research and
integrated rural development has proved adaptable to the needs of developing
regions.
Collaboration in water resources and agriculture constitute about one third of all
are delivered by Israeli experts sent abroad on long- and short-term assignments.
Section 4: AVAILABLE OPTIONS
4.1 National Policy and Institutional - Potential for Improvement
Water Law. In 1959, a comprehensive water law was passed making water resources
a public property and regulating water resources exploitation, allocation and
prevention of pollution and water conservation. Under the law all available water
resources are under public domain and made available for use by the consumers as
directed by the water Commissioner. The Water Commissioner is the sole statutory
body responsible for executing the State’s water policy, regarding exploitation,
allocation and conservation of water. The Water Commission, headed by the Water
Commissioner is the government organization that regulates the production and
supply of the limited water resources to the increasing population and the expanding
demand for water by all sectors of the society.
Water Management. Water is administratively allocated by the Water
Commissioner, empowered by the water Law 1959. The Water Commission
administration fulfills the following functions:
Issues abstraction and allocations license to consumers, on a yearly basis, based on
resources availability.
Water allocations for the domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors is adjusted to
quality, reliability and service, in accordance with national development plans.
Planning, construction and operation of the water supply systems and delivery
facilities necessary in order to meet national demand.
Advising the Government about water tariffs based on water quality and sector of
consumption.
Monitoring and evaluation of water resources, and
Creation of public awareness about water conservation needs.
Wastewater Administration. The Water Commission is also responsible for
coordinating activities between the Government Ministries, local municipalities and
operational bodies. These activities pertain to all aspects of construction of waste
treatment facilities and their disposal and reuse in accordance to criteria determined
by the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry of Health. The within the Water
Commission carries out Government's policy on wastewater treatment including
allocation of grants and loans for the construction of wastewater treatment and reuse
projects by the local authorities.
The National Water Supply Company - Mekorot. Mekorot Water Company Ltd,
founded in 1937, is a Government-owned company which is responsible for the
development and regular delivery of water to all localities and for all purposes.
Mekorot is in charge of the wholesale supply of water to urban communities,
industries and agricultural users. Mekorot operates about 1,300 wells, 700 pumping
stations 600 reservoirs and 6,500 kilometers of pipes. It also operates water quality
laboratory testing and constructs and operates desalination and fluoridation plants, and
carries out cloud seeding operations.
Mekorot produces and supplies about two-thirds of the total amount of water used in
1,380 MCM of water, of which 745 MCM were supplied for irrigation, 540 MCM for
domestic use, 94 MCM for industry and 27 MCM were recharged to aquifers.
Water Charges. Charges and water allocation are based on a quantitative
allocation to groups of consumers, namely: towns, local councils, and water users
associations. water prices for the various consumers are fixed by a parliamentary
committee based on recommendation made by the Ministry of Finance and the Water
Commission. Recently, an Increasing Block Rate Prices system is applied for
payment for the first 50, 80 and 100% of the allocation, leading to 10 - 15 %
savings in water used for irrigation. Different block rates are fixed by the
Government and differ for the various sources and region. A single tier level is
imposed on all crops, although this could distort farm level cropping pattern decisions
in favor of crops with relatively low water requirements, but sensible when the
ultimate goal is water conservation. Current tariffs have totally eliminated the subsidy
for water supplied to the urban and industrial sectors and a slight cross subsidy is
apparent.
New National Water Policy
Sector Deregulation. The Israeli water economy is on the verge of a major reform
in which seeing of water as a cheaply available public resource is to be abandoned
and a new policy reflecting water limited supply and competitive economic value is
to be fully considered. It is assumed that market forces and sector deregulation
are the most suitable tool for the efficient use of water in the agricultural sector.
A restructuring of water management will be initiated, aiming to:
seeing water as an economic good, considering the economic value of water and
charging the full cost of water
induce public participation and involvement in planning implementation and
operation stages
transfer functions performed by the government to the private sector, using free
trade and economic principles,
rationalize the use and conservation of natural resources in general and in
agriculture in particular,
safeguard environmental, social (ability to pay) and food security aspects
New water suppliers will be carved out of the National Water Company - Mekorot
whose role will be limited to the operation of the National Carrier, while the regional
water supply schemes will be privatized and defined as public service under the
supervision of the Water Commissioner. For water sold by Mekorot to the regional
authorities, a real price will be charged.
New Water Pricing. Water prices that were largely determined by the government,
based on the existing block rate and the non-tradable allocation are to be changed into
a market negotiating systems.. The general view is that market forces are the most
suitable tool for the efficient use of in the agricultural sector, while price incentive
is applicable to encourage the use of reclaimed effluents for irrigation.
To balance between supply and demand, a shadow price reflecting the water value
at source will be added to water charge, thus rendering the historic allocations into
a non - effective issue, but maintaining their regulation order in case of emergency or
under a series of drought years. The price of water will include not only the direct
costs but also its scarcity value, quality deterioration, over exploitation (mining) on
one hand, and the social aspects, such as access to water and the ability to pay of low
income groups, on the other. Subsidized prices if available will be fully indicated and
calculated reflecting their portion of the full costs and budgeted for each specific
system.
Water Trading. Shares allocation attracting dividends and voting rights will replace
existing water rights. The shareholders will control the performance of the new
regional corporations, while external efficiency will be achieved by the market forces
and the value of the shares in the financial market.
Urban water sector reform. Urban water sector is expected to undergo a profound
reform, stemming from the introduction of the new Law of corporation, under which
the municipalities are to transfer the management of the municipal water supply to
private hands. The aim is that the activities in the municipal water sector will be
carried out through independent profit making enterprises.
4.2 International and Regional Policies For Water and Food Supply
Water resources development and irrigation. There is a common understanding
that water is of high value in economic terms but also more importantly in social
terms. Access to safe water is considered as fundamental to life. However, some
countries have already reached the limits of their exploitable water resources, while
others are still engaged in large scale development, including massive irrigation
expansion. Nevertheless, decrease in water availability for agriculture is expected
in most countries, especially in countries where water supply is mainly linked to
non-renewable groundwater, in contradiction to continuous population growth and
the increasing needs for food and food production.
Pressure on water resources can be reduced if countries can rely on an external
market for food import, but this cannot be done at a regulated price and the free
trade may adversely affect existing preferential trade relationships and may raise
social unrest.
Integrated rural development. The focus would be on an integrated approach in
which irrigation is part of rural development, and encourages people to stay in rural
areas and contribute to rural development.
Institutional reform. A trend in transfer of responsibilities for operation and
maintenance to local actors is already noticeable. A clear shift is apparent towards
demand driven community management while strengthening the role of the state as a
regulator of resources (quantity and quality), as a watchdog and as crisis manager,
including:.
eliminating direct government support and input subsidies to farmers
developing private enterprises in irrigated areas
recovery of operation and maintenance cost
increasing the responsiveness of local actors to the development.
Sustainable agriculture. Modern and advanced agricultural production is geared
towards the protection of the environment, and efforts are being directed to
minimize the detrimental effects of agricultural activity on the environment. Suitable
measures are being introduced including:
♦ improved farm management to avoid agricultural waste,
♦ reduced use of fertilizer and pesticides,
♦ recycling of wastewater, sludge and compost, and
In addition to environmental clear advantages, sustainable agriculture reflects on
market demand which increasingly shows preference to agricultural products
produced by farmers who are sensitive to the environment, yielding additional
economic benefits to the producers.
Research & Development. Agriculture, as a primary sector, is a conditional
element in the accelerated economic development which takes place in many
countries. Furthermore, agricultural production has to commensurate with the
environment, and issues of open space, soil conservation and protection of the
natural vegetation and water resources have to be considered.
Continuous growth in agricultural production is dependent on close cooperation
between researchers, extension workers, farmers and agro-industries and application
of newly developed technologies. Based on experience, a two-way flow of
information between research personnel and farmers has to be established for new
science-based technologies to be incorporated in normal production, leading to
increase in the quantity and quality of the country’s agricultural produce.
Funds have to be raised to develop new technologies to convert conventional and
low income agricultural production systems into agro-industrial systems, producing
high value crops and other sophisticated products of high commercial value.
International and regional cooperation. Regional cooperation should serve the
immediate and present relative advantages of varying production systems,
bridging between fragmented and small mixed farming units and intensive
production systems, leading to a complementary market.
Issues for cooperation:
♦ water resources development
♦ Agricultural planning, farm management and market research
♦ sustainable farming
♦ desertification,
♦ poverty alleviation,
Effective tools for cooperation:
♦ human resources, technology transfer and capacity building
♦ establishment of out-stations and demonstration plots
♦ creation of data bases, uniform analytical procedures and standards
♦ joint congresses, workshops and publications
Technical and organization considerations. To ensure farmers participation, user
associations should be formed to ensure access to new technologies and extension
services to demonstrate improve irrigated agriculture and appropriate operation and
maintenance. Effective arrangements should be made to train and support farmers
in correct operation and maintenance procedures with a strong support from the
private sector.
4.3 Technological - Potential for Improvement
Water Conservation. Water conservation is the most reliable and least expensive
way to stretch the country's water resources. This challenge has to be met by all
sectors. Public water conservation campaigns coupled with technical and economic
measures should be applied to reduce consumption and to increase awareness to the
water scarcity conditions.
Water saving measures applies in
Water metering is compulsory for all type of consumption and consumers
Abstraction licensing have to be obtained, adjusting annual and peak month
abstraction rights to water availability
A three block rate pricing system and a penalty for exceeding allocation rights are
applied
Use of on-farm advanced micro-irrigation systems
Household pressure reducer devices, pull handle taps and cisterns with double
quantity dispensers
Public awareness and media campaigns
In industry, special re-use facilities are being phased in and cooling facilities and other
water-intensive devices have been revamped with conservation features.
In the domestic and urban sector, conservation efforts focus on improvements in
efficiency, resource management, repair, control and monitoring of municipal water
systems. Public water conservation campaigns coupled with technical and economic
measures are also being applied to reduce consumption and to increase awareness to
water scarcity and water quality conditions Citizens are urged to save water. The
slogan "Don't waste a drop" is known in every home in
under a conservation regime, including planting of drought resistant plants and
watering at night.
Optimal use of available resources. Optimal exploitation and conjunctive use of
available surface and groundwater should be pursued. Also reuse of marginal
sources should be considered including reuse of drainage and sewage water,
brackish water and rain harvesting. Treated wastewater should constitute an
increasing part of agricultural water supply.
Artificial Recharge. Overall storage capacity can be increased by the recharge of
sub-surface groundwater reservoirs in suitable geological zones. Also techniques for
efficient rainfall harvesting (concentrating the water in the root zone) are well known
and have been used in some regions. General and geo-hydrological knowledge
about artificial recharge is widely lacking while widespread implementation and
spatial distribution of artificial recharge would lead to improved management of
groundwater, both in terms of quantity and quality.
Improving water efficiency. Surface irrigation is currently by far the most
common technique used by small farmers. Surface irrigation covers 87 % of the
irrigated domain and one can expect that surface irrigation will still be dominant in
2025. However, irrigation water at field level is by large still used with low
efficiency in many countries. Improvement of irrigation efficiency at field level is
technically possible, including: sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and modernized
surface irrigation Modern surface irrigation techniques should be considered as
crucial including improved leveling techniques and even distribution at field level.
Recently, a satellite linked valve control was installed to control distant water
systems.
Cropping intensity. In most production systems, the average cropping intensity
(crops/year/ha) is only slightly greater than 1. Potentially there is a scope to increase
the cropping intensity provided that water is available.
Supplementary irrigation. Solutions to improve water productivity (Kg/m3) on
rainfed land have been tested and supplementary irrigation shows a high return for
water. An increase in productivity of 1.5 to 2.5 Kg of grain per m3 was reported
when supplementary irrigation was applied to cereals at critical vegetative stages.
Crop Diversification. Market forces at home and abroad, and a scarcity of land,
labour and water are inducing a shift from extensively farmed mass produced crops
to intensive production systems, including greenhouses with climatic control
systems, soil-less culture and biological pest control.
Israeli science supports large scale production of innovative products, such as:
production of hybrid seeds and other propagation material,
production of medicinal plants for the extraction of natural plant extracts for use
in medicine and food industries.
production of engineered organisms for crop protection, substituting expensive
and environmentally harmful chemical pesticides
utilization of reclaimed wastewater for the irrigation.
Biotechnology. Genetic intervention and crop breeding help in developing crops to
meet various objectives: lower inputs (chemicals and fertilizers);. lower water use
and/or greater yield; tolerance to brackish and saline water; drought and diseases
resistance. Plant metabolism can be manipulated, changing crop leaves radiative
characteristics, to reduce the transpiration rate per unit of yield and biomass.
Aqua-culture. Intensive form of aquaculture, using saline and sea water are
extensively used in man-made ponds and reservoirs and off-shore floating cages.
Advanced water purification techniques, oxygen diffusion and protein rich food are
used to increase production rate from 0.5 kg per cum to 20 kg and more in a
controlled system.
Section 5/6 - OPTIONS ASSESSMENT – PROCESSES AND FRAMEWORK
5/6.1 Sectoral Master Plans
The first master plan for water resources development in
1950 and approved by a Board of Consultants on March 8, 1956. The plan was
prepared by Tahal - Water Planning for Israel Ltd., a public corporate body,
specialized in planning of water resources. The main features of the first master
plan were the construction of the National Water Carrier (NWC), and the integration
of all major regional projects into a national grid.
Subsequent planning and development have been mainly aimed at the rational and
conjunctive use of available and fully utilized natural resources, to cope with the
increasing domestic water demand and inter-sectoral competitive demand. Major
works include expansion of the main distribution systems, runoff interception,
reclamation of wastewater. The operational efficiency of water distribution
networks has greatly improved due to automation and remote control operation.
5/6.2 Major Water, Wastewater and Irrigation Projects
The National Water Carrier (NWC). The Carrier, the backbone of the national
system connects regional surface and groundwater sources to bridge spatial and
temporal gaps between supply and demand, over 180 km from north to south. The
system is characterized by heavy investments in pumping, pipes and treatment plants
An integrated network of pumping stations, reservoirs, canals and pipelines is used to
supply water under pressure for all the domestic, industrial and irrigation consumers.
The NWC, commissioned in 1964, conveys surface water from Kinneret Watershed,
pumped through
conjunction with groundwater sources exploited from two main aquifers: the
Pleistocen (Coastal Aquifer) and the Cenoman Turon Aquifer, thus supplying a blend
of surface and groundwater. Surface water from the Kinneret contributes, on
average, about 380 MCM, fluctuating drastically from year to year, due to erratic
rainfall. Water not required by consumers is redistributed to two aquifers via recharge
basins and dual-purpose wells. Recharging of aquifers helps to prevent evaporation
losses and, in the coastal area, intrusion of sea water. Once underground, the water is
available for re-pumping as needed.
meters of water. The Lake is fed mainly by the
of three tributaries providing about 520 MCM of an average inflow of about 650
MCM/year. Out of this, some 420 MCM per year (20 cum/sec.) are withdrawn
through the National Carrier.
Water from the lake is lifted by the Sapir Pumping Station (4x6.75 cum/sec) from -
213 m to +44 m, discharging via an open canal (
Tsalmon Reservoir with a volume of 1 MCM. From the reservoir, a second pumping
station - Tsalmon Pumping Station lift the water from +37 m to 152 m through
Yaakov Tunnel (850 m long) into Bet Natufa Canal 17 km long discharging into
Eshkol Reservoirs, from which it flows all the way to the south. In an effort to cut
costs, most pumping operations are carried out during off-peak and mid-peak hours.
At the Eshkol Site, the canal widen up to form a settling basin with a volume of 1.2
MCM (600x500x4.5m). This basin is followed by an operational reservoir with
storage volume of 3.8 MCM. From the reservoir water flows into a closed pipeline
108" laid over a distance of 86 km, branching near Rosh Hayin into two Yarkon
branches (66" and 70") until it reaches Mitzpe Ramon 280 kilometers south of
Kinneret.
The NWC supplies a total of 1,000 major consumers, including 18 municipalities
and 80 local authorities, with a total of 730 MCM of water, of which 450 MCM for
domestic and industrial purposes.
Dan Region Wastewater Reclamation Project. This project, which serves the Tel
Aviv Metropolitan Region, is the largest wastewater reuse project, serving a
population of about 1.2 million and generate a current volume of 110 MCM/year.
After biological treatment in an activated sludge system, the effluents are infiltrated
through ground basins employing an intermittent flooding and drying regime. The
effluents are pumped back for unrestricted irrigation after a detention period of about
400 days. A network of observation wells surrounding the recharge area monitors the
quality and also checks that the treated water does not flow towards fresh water wells
beyond the confined recharge area. In the following, the effluents are pumped
through a battery of production wells and conveyed 100 km to the irrigation fields in
the southern part of
presently for irrigation.
The aquifer treatment provides additional purification, partly by oxidation in the nearground
region, and then by absorption, ion exchange and sedimentation at lower
depths. Percolation and absorption by the sandy soils provide additional treatment,
yielding effluents of a suitable quality for unrestricted irrigation and for a variety of
industrial and non-potable municipal uses. The aquifer also serves as a seasonal
storage avoiding water losses through evaporation.
The expansion of the Dan region Project from the current volume of 110 MCM/year to a
capacity of 160 MCM/year has been approved by the Government and is underway. The
ongoing works are primarily directed to the construction of a series of end-tail
reservoirs with a total volume of 20 MCM at the far end of the project - the Bsor
Region, and the related pumping stations and conveyance systems to the irrigated fields.
The added storage will allow a year round utilization of the main system irrespective of
the irrigation requirements. Additional investment will be required for the expansion of
the headwork including the addition of infiltration basins and recovery wells.
other schemes, a less sophisticated. A less costly approach is applied for treatment
and reuse of effluents from smaller cities, towns and settlements. The schemes
produce effluents restricted for the irrigation of non-edible crops.
The Haifa Kishon Complex renovates the wastewater of the Haifa Metropolitan Area
(30 MCM/year), after conventional activated sludge treatment, the effluents are
conveyed to the Yiszre'el Valley, some 30 km east of
impounded, in a 12 MCM surface reservoir for summer irrigation of cotton and other
crops. A total of 50 MCM/year is being used by this irrigation scheme, including
about 15 MCM of fresh water from the National Carrier.
With the increase in wastewater generation, the scheme is to be expanded, increasing
the capacity of the pumping units and the extension of the main conveyance system,
allowing the connection of new consumers, while further reducing the use of fresh
water in the mixed supply.
Medium and Small Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation Projects. Other schemes
employing different treatment processes have been developed for the treatment and
utilization of sewage from medium-sized towns. In these schemes, the level of
treatment ranges from advanced treatment of the activated sludge type to aerated and
oxidation ponds and less. The effluents are subsequently diverted directly or from
open channels to a series of surface reservoirs and later on used for irrigation.
Seasonal Storage. This major element in the treatment process is the large detention
reservoir which regulates between the relatively constant flow of wastewater and the
seasonal demand for irrigation, six to eight months a year. There are more than 150
surface reservoirs, seven to 10 m deep with a capacity ranging between 0.1 MCM and
12 MCM turning in more than 150 MCM of sewage effluents and drainage water.
These deep reservoirs have proved to be of significant improvement of the effluent
quality, polishing the biological treatment thus providing high quality effluents
without environmental nuisances.
5/6.3 Water Resources and Water Supply Development Plans
Development of fresh water resources. Low water quality and over exploitation of
replenishable resources limit the development of additional resources, despite the
availability of agricultural land. The development plan is therefore limited to the
exploration of new well fields for fresh and brackish water in the peripheral regions
of
re-allocation of existing boreholes.
Expansion of the water delivery infrastructure. The continuous growth in urban
population requires improvement and expansion of the water delivery infrastructure
within the cities, semi-urban and rural settlements
Improving drinking water quality. To conform with new drinking standards,
treatment of water at source and in the reticulation systems is being improved. Major
treatment plants are being planned to improve the quality of surface water resources
supplied for drinking purposes.
Separation of drinking and irrigation delivery systems. The stringent standards for
drinking water on one hand and the need for utilization of low quality and marginal
sources for irrigation on the other hand, requires a complete separation of drinking
water delivery system from those used for irrigation. The partition of the two systems
allows conformity with drinking water standards without interfering with the
expanded use of treated effluents and other marginal sources for irrigation.
Non - Conventional Water Resources Development
Reclaimed Wastewater Effluents. The use of reclaimed and treated municipal
wastewater is becoming an increasingly important source of water for agricultural and
industrial purposes as the other conventional sources are far reaching a complete
exploitation. Currently, about 275 MCM of effluents, about 60% of the generated
wastewater, treated to varying degrees are already utilized for irrigation after
surface or underground storage. Wastewater effluents are gradually becoming the
main water resource for agriculture. It is estimated that by the end of the millennium
about 300 MCM (25%) of the total amount of water supplied for irrigation will be in
the from of reclaimed sewage effluents, increasing to about 600 MCM in the year
2020.
Intercepted runoff and artificial recharge. Surface runoff is sporadic and infrequent,
observed only for a few days in a good rainy year. Despite the low occurrence,
several regional schemes were established to divert storm flows from the rivers into
surface reservoirs from where they are pumped into the supply system, or left to
percolate into the underground aquifer (mainly along the coastal plain). At present,
approximately 40 MCM are intercepted out of a potential of 135 MCM/year of storm
water. In addition, they are more than 300 hundred small reservoirs used for the
interception of storm flow and storage of treated effluents.
Artificially-Induced Rainfall - Cloud Seeding. Cloud seeding with silver iodide
crystals or brine using special air-crafts has been practiced in
Countrywide, as a routtine operation. Controlled experiments that were conducted
between 1960 and 1975 indicated that a significant increase of 10 - 15% in rainfall in
the northern part of the country -
sources (World Meteorological Organization) have cited the Israeli seeding program
to statistically showing significant success. Although, lack of clouds in draught
years limit the benefits of cloud seeding when most needed.
Desalination. Many small and medium plants for desalination of brackish and sea
water for domestic water supply are operating mostly in the
Aquifer, drainage and seepage of fish ponds as well as deep wells drilled in saline
water bodies will be further developed, after desalination. Also desalination of sea
water along the Mediterranean coast and the
important. The first sea water desalination unit on the
cum/day and more units will be installed to produce 200 - 250 MCM by the year
2020, as compared to current production of 10 MCM/year. The first sea water
desalination plant, on the Mediterranean coast with a capacity of 150,000 cum/day is
planned for the early years of the next millennium.
Section 7: RECOMMENDATIONS AND LESSONS FOR WCD
Global trends
A genuine need for the expansion of irrigation, coupled with improved water
productivity
Increasing demand for water for all uses
Decreasing allocation of fresh water for irrigation
Recycling and use of marginal water resources for irrigation
Modern technology acquisition and institutional reforms
Global transition towards a market economy with varying pace and degree in
different regions and economic structure.
Steady and progressive integration of regional and international markets
Sustainability Targets
Sustainability should be viewed in the context of the economic and social
development, going far beyond natural resources.
Further development of water resources to improve drinking and industrial uses,
as first priority,
Improvement of water use efficiency and productivity in all sectors
Further development for multi-purpose dams, hydro-power and expansion of
irrigation
Protection of water resources and environment from pollution
Improved management of water facilities including dams and other natural and
man-made water storage
Social Stability and demography. Demographic pressure is the underlying
determinant of the developing world. Rural development and food production are
therefore conditional for social stability in many important countries. Efficient
farming systems and irrigation are detrimental while other potential sectors are still
embryonic to generate jobs and absorb rural migration.
Global climate change and long term storage. Decreasing precipitation, higher
frequency of extreme rainfalls and droughts—is already apparent in many regions
and the impact of global change is a quantifiable risk. Rising average annual
temperatures and lowered average rainfall and wider fluctuation and variability of
precipitation would jeopardise the sustainability of resources and threatens the
existence of both rainfed and irrigated farming systems. In addition to the need for
better predictions and thorough monitoring of the climate, such conditions
emphasize the importance of annual and inter- annual storage which has to be greatly
improved.
Cloud seeding. Cloud seeding to artificially increase rainfall is being used with
some success in
areas and meteorological conditions. In addition to increased water volume, rain
enhancement in critical periods of the crop cycle can save the entire crop in drought
stricken areas.
Water Resources Quality Degradation. The quality of water is a growing concern
given current measurable negative effects on water quality of pollution generated in
all sectors. The degradation of surface and groundwater resources can be worsened
by the accelerated industrialization and recycling of wastewater leading to an increase
of undesirable chemical loads. Vigorous actions will be required by national and
international organizations to reduce the associated risks.
Risk of a food crisis. Indiscriminate global food trade can exert a great concern on
social stability in regions and countries sensitive to any food crisis, especially those
which cannot , lift food prices to meet the marginal cost of production in the
western world. It can be assumed that a fair level of self-sufficiency in staple food
would be generally maintained to alleviate the effect of unforeseen food crisis.
Financial and economic considerations. Water should be assigned a higher value,
and appropriate incentives should be given to attract investments.
International and Regional cooperation. Increasing regional and international
cooperation on water transfers, research and technology. Further, more effort should
be given to joint planning for climatic variability: plans to combat drought and flood
and on increasing subsurface and groundwater storage.
Wider regional cooperation in river basin management could ensure that regional
interests are properly protected within the national food market, privatization,
structural and institutional re-organization A regional outlook of water resources
should be considered, whenever possible, by national institutions in regulating and
allocating resources together with local management issues and involvement of the
private sector and water users associations. Regional cooperation must reach a
high level of efficiency to cope with the challenges. This implies an efficient institutional
framework, including exchange of reliable information systems about withdrawal and water
uses and recharge of groundwater.
Information and Knowledge. Develop a proper information and monitoring system
to feedback to decision-makers in developing water for food and investment in R&D
to support the necessary development in agriculture and water resources.
Agriculture Environmental Management System Electronic Manure Handling Process Map
John D. Harrison
USU Extension Specialist
Agriculture Waste Management
ASTE Department
jdh@cc.usu.edu
Aditya H. Toney
Undergraduate Programmer
adityatoney@cc.usu.edu
Dallen R. Smith
USU Extension Project Coordinator
dallens@cc.usu.edu
Utah State University
Logan, Utah
Abstract: Utah State University Cooperative Extension Agriculture Environmental Management Systems participants developed an electronic process flow method for identifying aspects and assessing impacts from the manure handling systems on animal feeding operations. This method breaks the manure handling system into manageable portions by delineating every process and support activity on a process flow diagram. Then each process and activity is individually examined to identify associated aspects. This approach expedites the identification of aspects in relation to those processes and activities. It also fulfills the operational control condition to "identify those operations and activities that are associated with identified significant environmental aspects."
Introduction
Implementation of an Agriculture Environmental Management System (AEMS) is intended to result in improved environmental performance (Block, 1999; Harrison, 2002). Agriculturalists are generally unfamiliar with the terms "aspects" and "impacts" (Jackson, Kirschner, Serber, Koelsch, Risse, & Bird, personal communication, December 17, 2001).
Conceptually, these terms are in numerous agricultural best management practices (BMP). Additionally, these terms are alluded to in various EMS standards and industry codes of practice. However, the terms are well defined by American National Standards Institute/International Standards Organization (ANSI/ISO) 14001, Environmental Management Systems - Specifications with Guidance for Use (1996).
According to ANSI/ISO 14001, an environmental aspect is an "element of an organizations activities, products, or services that can interact with the environment" (1996). They continue by defining environmental impacts as "any change to the environment weather adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from organizations activities, products, or services" (ANSI/ISO, 1996).
Block (1999) identifies various methods for determining aspects and impacts. Most of these approaches are neither simple nor rational for agriculture producers and their advisors. But she defines and recommends the Process Flow Method as the easiest and most comprehensive way of identifying environmental aspects.
Electronic Process Flow Method
Following Block (1999), Utah State University Cooperative Extension Agriculture Environmental Management Systems (AEMS) participants have developed an electronic process flow method for identifying aspects and assessing impacts from the manure handling systems on animal feeding operations. This method breaks the manure handling system into manageable portions by delineating every process and support activity on a process flow diagram. Then each process and activity is individually examined to identify associated aspects. This approach expedites the identification of aspects in relation to those processes and activities. It has the added benefit of fulfilling the operational control condition to "identify those operations and activities that are associated with identified significant environmental aspects."
The manager of the animal feeding operation co-produces a process flow diagram of their manure handling system. Identification of the process flow method begins when a producer logs into the USU Agriculture Environmental Management Information System (AEMIS) on the USU AEMS Web site (http://aems.aste.usu.edu) as a guest or cooperator (Harrison, Kanade, & Toney, 2004). Once into the system, the user can find all the capabilities associated with this very powerful tool meeting the needs.
Figure 1 shows the user interface for AEMIS. The producer can then click on the link "Develop AEMS" on the menu that appears on the left hand side of the screen, which reveals a three-step process for developing an AEMS. However, this article focuses on the "Process Map" portion of the procedure. Details concerning "Developing an AEMS" are more thoroughly discussed in previous publications (Harrison & Toney, 2004; Harrison, Kanade, & Toney, 2004; Harrison, 2002).
Figure 1.
AEMIS User Interface
In the second step, a farm producer is able to tailor a Process Map suited to his farm that can be referred to any time once the user logs in. Producers begin co-production of their own process map by first identifying the type of manure (solid, slurry, or liquid) that they are handling.
When the user clicks on the green bar entitled "Select Your Manure Type," a selection of different types of manure is revealed (Figure 2). Once the user chooses a specific type of manure, the different varieties of manure under the selected category are displayed.
Figure 2.
Types of Manure
Figure 3 shows that, in this example, the producer has selected Solid manure and the Solid types are displayed. From this point on, the producer makes selections suitable to his operation until an entire process map is achieved. Throughout the entire selection procedure (or process mapping), a flow chart is simultaneously created on the side that gives a diagrammatic process map representation of his farm.
Figure 3.
Displaying Types of Solid
Environmental Aspects and Impacts Co-production
After the process flow diagram is completed, the producer is in the position to co-examine every step in every identified process or activity in order to delineate any associated environmental aspects. This approach served two purposes. First, it enables the producer to identify aspects in small, manageable portions, thereby decreasing the likelihood that significant aspects will be overlooked. Second, it enables the producer to link the identified aspects to specific operations and activities. This comprehensive process flow diagram delineates:
-
Where every process or activity begins, in terms of the receipt of manure,
-
The nature of any manure treatment that occur as part of the process or activity, and
-
Where every process or activity ends, in terms of intermediate or final land application.
Each "Aspect" of the process map has various "Impacts" associated with it. These impacts are typically viewed as emissions to air, releases to water and nutrient loading of the land (Figure 4). It is not necessary for an aspect to have an actual impact; the potential for a significant impact is sufficient to designate an aspect as significant. Thus, to successfully manage aspects to avoid a significant impact, the producers identify and evaluate the potential impacts to avoid an adverse environmental impact in the future.
Figure 4.
Aspects and Impacts for Every Identified Activity/Process
Once the environmental impacts are identified, each impact is evaluated to establish the magnitude of impact. This evaluation becomes the basis for determining significance. Environmental impacts can be evaluated on a number of ways. The AEMS program has selected a combination of evaluation criteria that are appropriate for the producer's operations and activities. All evaluation criteria employ a four-point rating scale. Once a rating scheme has been determined and underlying constructs defined, each impact must be evaluated according to the elected criteria. Every identified impact is assigned a number that reflects its position for any given criteria. In the Figure 5, "Ammonia" is evaluated for "Likelihood," and a four-point scale is used to define degrees of likelihood. The impact is assigned a number that depicts its likelihood rating. The user can hereon rate the impacts on a numeric level.
Figure 5.
Evaluation Criteria for Each Impact
Once an evaluation criterion is established, and numeric values are assigned an impact score is derived for every identified aspect. A high impact score denotes a significant impact. "Create Significance List" in Figure 6 creates the significance to different environmental aspects as per priority (or significant impact).
Figure 6.
Creating Significance List
Summary
The process flow method eliminates much of the frustration that can arise when organizations attempt to identify and evaluate their environmental aspects and impacts. This method breaks the manure handling system into manageable portions by delineating every process and support activity on a process flow diagram. This feature makes this process the easiest and most comprehensive way of identifying environmental aspects
This article is online at http://www.joe.org/joe/2005april/tt5.shtml
Sunflower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Sunflower (disambiguation).
| Sunflower | ||||||||||||||||
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 Sunflowers display bright yellow colors. | ||||||||||||||||
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| Helianthus annuus L. | ||||||||||||||||
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The sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an annual plant in the Family Asteraceae, with a large flower head (inflorescence). The stem of the flower can grow up to 3 metres tall, with the flower head reaching 30cm in diameter.
Contents[hide] |
History
Sunflowers are native to the Americas, and were domesticated around 1000 B.C. Francisco Pizarro found the Inca subjects venerating the sunflower as an image of their sun god. Gold images of the flower, as well as seeds, were taken back to Europe early in the 16th century. Helianthus is the Greek word for "sunflower".
Greek myth
In Greek mythology, a girl named Clytie fell in love with the sun god Apollo, and would do nothing but watch his chariot move across the sky. After nine days, she was transformed into a sunflower. However, the word "sunflower" and its cognates existed long before Helianthus annuus was brought to Europe, and it is thought that the myth (which is mentioned in Ovid's poem Metamorphoses) actually refers to heliotrope or marigold.
Description
The term "sunflower" is also used to refer to all plants of the genus Helianthus, many of which are perennial plants.
What is called the flower is actually a head (formerly composite flower) of numerous flowers crowded together. The outer flowers are the ray florets and can be yellow, maroon, orange, or other colors. These flowers are sterile. The flowers that fill the circular head inside the ray flowers are called disc florets.
The arrangement of florets within this cluster is typically such that each is separated from the next by approximately the golden angle, producing a pattern of spirals where the number of left spirals and the number of right spirals are successive Fibonacci numbers. Typically there are 34 spirals in one direction and 55 in the other; on a very large sunflower you may see 89 in one direction and 144 in the other.
The disc florets mature into "seeds". However, what we commonly call the seeds are actually the fruit (an achene) of the plant, with the true seeds encased in an inedible husk.
Heliotropism
Most flowerheads on a field of blooming sunflowers are turned towards the east, where the sun rises each morning. Immature sunflowers in the bud stage exhibit heliotropism; on sunny days tracks the sun on its journey along the sky from east to west, while at night or at dawn it returns to its eastward orientation. The motion is performed by motor cells in the pulvinus, a flexible segment of the stem just below the bud. The stem stiffens at the end of the bud stage, and when the blooming stage is reached the stem freezes in its eastward direction. Thus, blooming sunflowers are not heliotropic anymore, even though most flowerheads are facing the direction where the sun rises.
The inflorescence of the wild sunflower seen on roadsides does not turn toward the sun. In this sunflower, the flowering heads face many directions when mature. But the leaves exhibit some heliotropism.
Cultivation and uses
To grow well, sunflowers need full sun. They grow best in fertile, moist, well-drained soil with a lot of mulch. Seeds should be 45 cm (1.5') apart and planted 2.5 cm (1") deep.
Sunflower "whole seeds" (fruit) are sold as snacks, especially in China, the United States and Europe. It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads. Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking (but is less cardiohealthy than olive oil), as a carrier oil and is used to produce biodiesel, for which it is less expensive than the olive product. The cake remaining after the seeds have been processed for oil is used as a livestock feed. Some recently developed cultivars have drooping heads. These cultivars are less attractive to gardeners growing the flowers as ornamental plants, but appeal to farmers, because they reduce bird damage and losses from some plant diseases. There are also new breeds of sunflowers which are transgenic, so that they are resistant to some diseases. Sunflowers also produce latex and are the subject of experiments to improve their suitability as an alternative crop for producing hypoallergenic rubber.
For farmers not intending to grow it, the sunflower is considered a noxious weed. The wild variety will grow unwanted in corn and soy bean fields which can have a negative impact on yields.
Trivia
The sunflower is the state flower of the U.S. state of Kansas, and one of the city flowers of Kitakyushu, Japan.
The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosa) is related to the sunflower. The Mexican sunflower is Tithonia rotundifolia. False sunflower refers to plants of the genus Heliopsis.
Scientific literature reports, from 1567, that a 12 m (40'), traditional, single-head, sunflower plant was grown in Padua. The same seed lot grew almost 8 m (24') at other times and places (e.g. Madrid). Much more recent feats (past score years) of over 8 m (25') have been achieved in both Netherlands and Canada (Ontario).
Flower formation
 1. The first stage of the flower formation |
 2. The flower is still covered, but faces the sun |
 3. The flower is nearly completely exposed |
 4. The flower is completely exposed |
Gallery
 Sunflowers |
 Bumble bee sampling Sunflower nectar |
 Sunflowers growing near Fargo, North Dakota |
 Lone sunflower about 2 m (6 ft, 6') tall |
 Sunflower seedlings, just three days after germination |
 Sunflower Profile |
 Sunflower and pollinator |
 Sunflower (French:Tournesol) |
 Large Russian Sunflower |
 Sunflower |
See also
References
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Shosteck, Robt. 1974. Flowers and Plants. An International Lexicon with Biographical Notes. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co. 329 pp.
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Wood, Marcia. June 2002. "Sunflower Rubber?" Agricultural Research. USDA. [1]
Hordeum vulgare
Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
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| Nomenclatura binomiale | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Hordeum vulgare L. |
L'orzo comune (Hordeum vulgare) è una pianta erbacea annuale cereale appartenente alla famiglia delle Poacee (o Graminacee).
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Orzo selvatico (Hordeum spontaneum).
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Esiste anche l'orzo murino.
Indice[nascondi] |
Descrizione
La pianta è alta circa un metro, più o meno cespitosa, con fusti (culmi) rigidi e sottili, con nodi distanziati.
Ha foglie rade, lineari, ricadenti, di colore verde chiaro, ruvide su ambedue le pagine.
Produce spighe allungate, dapprima erette, quindi leggermente piegate verso il basso, composte di spighette di un solo fiore ognuna.
Il frutto (cariosside) è chiuso da due protezioni mebranacee, le glumette; è di solito allungato e stretto, più acuto ad una delle estremità, di colore giallo-ocraceo. La glumetta inferiore può terminare con una parte sottile e allungata, la resta. Le spighe con le reste si dicono aristate, quelle che ne sono prive mutiche. I semi che formano la spiga di orzo sono ordinati secondo file. Le file possono essere due (nell'orzo distico), quattro (in quello tetrastico) o sei (nel tipo esastico).
Orzo mondato
Cariossidi di orzo vestito, private, mediante passaggio fra due macine, delle glumette.
Orzo perlato
Cariossidi d'orzo, che, lavorate fra due macine più ravvicinate, sono state private del pericarpo e della crusca e trasformati in granelli bianchi arrotondati.
Informazioni nutrizionali
L'orzo è ricchissimo di proprietà curative: é rimineralizzante delle ossa, previene le affezioni polmonari e cardiovascolari,è nutriente e tonico, ed è molto indicato in caso di gastriti, coliti e cistiti con un unico punto debole....provoca facilmente meteorismo intestinale! Inoltre facilita la concentrazione e l'attività cerebrale in quanto contiene magnesio, fosforo, potassio, vitamina PP, E, calcio e ferro. È molto facile da digerire ed è altamente energetico, tanto che in passato veniva utilizzato in tutti gli ospedali. I principi attivi presenti sono: ordeina (alcaloide), maltina, amido. L'orzo ha anche proprietà antinfiammatorie,e agisce sul sistema immunitario grazie alla sua abilità nel contrastare le infiammazioni. Ha azione lassativa, digestiva rimineralizzante, ricostituente e ipotensiva: e' utile in caso di coliti spastiche, stipsi, dissenteria, problemi emorroidari, gotta, cistiti e nefriti, catarri bronchiali. Questa azione disintossicante e rinfrescante è dovuta in particolare all'ordeina che esercita azione antisettica sull'intestino, proteggendolo da enteriti e diarree. Il decotto utilizzato sotto forma di gargarismi aiuta nei casi di angina e di infiammazioni della cavità orale. Di seguito i valori nutrizionali:
acqua 11% proteine 11% lipidi 2,2% glucidi 73,5% ferro 3,5 mg calcio 40 mg fosforo 380 mg vit b1 0,3 mg vit b2 0,2 mg vit b3 2,5 mg
Importanza economica
Coltivazione
L'orzo è un cereale precoce, resistente ai freddi invernali e che completa il suo sviluppo prima dei caldi estivi (alcune varietà hanno un ciclo vegetativo di soli 3 mesi); è adatto quindi a climi e tipi di terreno diversi. Coltivata in tutte le regioni boreali (Europa, Russia, Canada, USA, Africa settentrionale, Medio Oriente e Estremo Oriente), specialmente nelle località montane. Sopporta le temperature elevate, anche fino a 38°C, purche l'umidità dell'aria non sia eccessiva. Cresce bene nei terreni dove l'umidità è scarsa ed è resistente ai terreni salini. Coltivato per le cariossidi, usate per il consumo diretto, per la preparazione di farine; fornisce anche un buon foraggio verde. L'industria alimentare utilizza grandi quantità di orzo per la produzione del malto (orzo germogliato) con cui, per fermentazione, si produce la birra e, per successiva distillazione, bevande superalcoliche, come il whisky.
Produzione
La produzione mondiale (2002) è pari a 137 milioni di t.
L'Europa è il maggiore produttore ed esportatore di orzo con 60 milioni di t.
In Italia la coltivazione dell'orzo annuale è pari a 1,3 milioni di t (con 350.000 ha di superficie coltivata); l'importazione interessa circa 600 mila t di prodotto.
Il mercato nazionale si va orientando verso prodotti con granella grossa e pesi ettolitrici elevati.
Alimentazione umana
Con la bollitura, se ne ottiene una bevanda rinfrescante.
Il seme è ricco di amido e contiene anche proteine (10%) e grassi (1,5%).
Le cariossidi e la sua farina vengono utilizzate nell'alimentazione umana (vedi), soprattutto per cibi dietetici.
Alimentazione animale
In zootecnia l'orzo, sotto forma di farina integrale, rappresenta uno dei migliori mangimi, utilizzabile con ogni tipo di animale di allevamento.
Ha un buon valore dietetico e, a buon diritto, gli vengono attribuite proprietà rinfrescanti e tonificanti.
L'orzo ha un tenore proteico leggermente superiore a quello dell' avena, potendo raggiungere la percentuale del 12,5%.
Equini
In Italia, l'orzo è diffusamente usato per i cavalli per i quali costituisce spesso l'alimento fondamentale.
Va somministrato intero; più opportuna una frantumazione sommaria per l'alimentazione di soggetti vecchi e denutriti.
Bovini
Macinato o franto l'orzo rappresenta un eccellente alimento per le mucche da latte.
Può costituire dal 40 al 60% della miscela per concentrati.
Dato sotto forma di farina integrale, sostiene e migliora la produzione lattea.
Comparato al mais, ai fini alimentari, l'orzo raggiunge un valore produttivo pari all'88%.
Per gli animali da carne, il metodo di alimentazione di soli concentrati, comporta un utilizzo d'orzo, che raggiunge l'85% del concentrato somministrato a volontà senza aggiungere foraggio.
Suini
L'alimentazione del suino con orzo, conferisce alla carne e al lardo indiscutibili pregi di finezza e sapore.
Promuove miglioramenti del metabolismo.
Con una alimentazione sistematica, i maiali presentano pelle lucida morbida ed elastica, setole soffici, grande appetito; forme di intossicazione dovute a errate alimentazioni, scompaiono con l'uso di orzo.
Pollame
Le miscele per l'allevamento del pollame, non possono contenere una percentuale alta di orzo; la sua efficienza in rapporto all'incremento ponderale, alla deposizione, all'utilizzazione del cibo rimane nettamente al di sotto di quella del mais.
Storia
L’orzo ha una lunga storia. E' conosciuto da oltre 12000 anni, originario forse dell’Asia occidentale e dell’Africa nordorientale, ed arrivato in Europa prima del grano e attualmente coltivato in quasi tutti i paesi del mondo. I primi reperti dei diversi tipi di orzo sono parte in Medio Oriente, parte nella zona del Tibet. Ancora oggi in Tibet ed in Etiopia se ne trovano specie spontanee. La conoscenza dell'orzo coltivato come pianta alimentare è antichissima. Le grandi civiltà (cinesi, egizi, sumeri e assiri) conoscevano bene questo cereale e i metodi per coltivarlo, successivamente si diffuse nel vasto impero romano, insieme al farro e al miglio. Il suo uso era talmente comune, da essere tra i cereali più utilizzati per la panificazione fino al XV secolo. Gli antichi Greci si alimentavano prevalentamente di orzo; il rancio dei gladiatori romani era la zuppa d'orzo; l'Ostia consacrata per la comunione è piatta e sottile poiché i pani degli antichi cristiani erano di farina d'orzo non lievitata. Oggi l'uso del pane d'orzo non lievitato è limitato a popolazioni asiatiche di Nepal e Tibet, il cereale è alla base dell'alimentazione delle popolazioni berbere del Magreb.
Curiosità
Secondo Ippocrate, l’orzo era il "cibo per i filosofi", perché era considerato un alimento sano, adatto sia alla mente che al corpo. Diversi studi oggi conducono allo stesso risultato: questo cereale facilita la concentrazione e dona serenità emotiva. In campo estetico, il decotto si usa sulle pelli arrossate come decongestionante e viene utilizzato dalle donne prima del parto per favorire la montata lattea e dopo il parto per mantenerla.
Beans
(Phaseolus spp)
The author of this chapter is D.G. Debouck (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources [IBPGR], Rome).
The author wishes to express his thanks to G.F. Freytag (USDA), J. León (University of Costa Rica), G. Ballesteros (University of Córdoba, Columbia), O. Toro (CIAT) and O. Youdivich. He also thanks the following institutions: IBPGR (Rome), CIAT (Colombia), IUCN (Switzerland), INIFAP (Mexico), ICTA (Guatemala), ICA (Colombia), INIAP (Ecuador), INIAA (Peru), CIF (Bolivia), INTA (Argentina) and the University of Costa Rica
Of the genus Phaseolus sensu stricto, which includes 55 species, five have been domesticated. The pre-Columbian peoples grew them for thousands of years as a main source of protein, since animals did not have an important role as a source of food or draught power, particularly in Mesoamerica.
As early as the pre-Columbian period, the kidney bean (P. vulgaris L.) had gained wider acceptance and was selected more intensively. The early chroniclers inform us that, in the Aztec and Incan empires, great importance was given to this species and it was used to pay tributes. It gained even more popularity after the conquest and, from 1880, with the exception of isolated studies the work on genetic improvement was mainly concentrated on this bean. This preferential treatment was detrimental to the other species which are of greater or comparable interest in modern agriculture, at least in areas that do not offer optimum ecological conditions for their development.
The ancestral form of P. vulgaris grows within the boundary between two climatic zones subtropical dry and tropical temperate where pre-Columbian societies established many settlements, a tact which may explain the acceptance of the species. To cover the greater part of the area occupied (except for certain Andean regions), the Pre-Columbians domesticated four other species.
The five ancestral forms were lianas which grew in different ecological niches. Biochemical studies have shown how P. lunatus was domesticated in several points of Mesoamerica and P. vulgaris in the Andes. Except in the latter region, uniformity in selection pressure led to a considerable similarity in evolutionary stock. With the exception of the tepary bean, the association with maize—although it was late in the Andes—also contributed to this standardization. The levels of evolution of the five species have been varied and there is a great potential for exploitation; for example, as regards the growth habit in P. polyanthus and the size and colour of the P. acutifolius seed. The ecological potential of these species would enable some of them to be developed even more profoundly than P. vulgaris.
At a time when the model of an agriculture which is both sustainable and productive has been accepted, beans deserve to be given renewed attention.
Phaseolus coccineus
Botanical name: Phaseolus coccineus L.
Family: Fabaceae
Common names: English: scarlet runner beans: Spanish: ayocote (name of Nahuatl origin, central Mexico), patol (Mexico [Zacatecas]), botil (Mexico [Chipas]), chomborote, piloy (high platear of Guatemala), cubá (Costa Rica)
This species has been cultivated in the high parts of Mesoamerica for many centuries. In pre-Columbian Mexico. the people of the Anahuac cultivated it extensively and ensured its distribution. Its introduction into southern Colombia (Antioquia and Nariño) and Europe (where it is known as scarlet runner bean and haricot d'Espagne) could have occurred in the seventeenth century before reaching other parts of the world. such as the Ethiopian highlands. It has been found in archaeological remains only in Mexico in Durango and Puebla. and wild only in Tamaulipas. Although archaeological information is very scarce. it could be assumed that its Mexican domestication took place in humid high zones.
Changes in maize varieties (earlier-maturing and with softer stems) and the use of fertilizers (for example, urea) and herbicides in maize yields led to the gradual abandonment of this crop in eastern Guatemala and in Costa Rica. It is reasonable to suppose that the same is happening in other areas of its cultivation. Because of its ecological niche P. coccineus has suffered heavy competition from exotic crops with a higher consumption and better market, for instance vetch, broad bean, cabbage, garlic and onion.
P. coccineus has been used in its nuclear area, particularly for its dry or green seeds. The consumption of young seeds enables the crop to be expanded to higher altitudes, since the fleshy root produces a second growth after light frosts (for example in Huehuetenango, Guatemala). The root of this legume has medicinal uses in Mexico and the flowers are also eaten. Its gaudy influorescences may be the reason for its recent expansion as an ornamental plant in Europe and the United States. The green pod is used as a vegetable in western Europe and the dry seeds (white seeds) are eaten in some traditional dishes.
Botanical description
A pluriannual species of great vegetative vigour with stems of several metres (only in a few modern cultivars are there shrubby forms) which emerge from a fleshy root. P. coccineus is easily distinguished by: its large seeds (the weight of 100 seeds is 80 to 170 g and 6 to 12 g for the wild form) and small, narrow, elliptical hilum; and its large influorescences (20 cm and in excess of 20 fruit-bearing stems) with scarlet, white or, more rarely, two-colour flowers. It carries out hypogeal germination, has a fleshy root which is divided and generally fusiform and which allows cotyledonary young shoots to resprout over several consecutive years. It flowers 50 days after sowing. with early varieties, or at the start of the rains, and continues to produce flowers over a long period, except in the shrubby varieties. In the majority of cases P. coccineus undergoes cross-pollination. assisted by its extrorse stigma and nectaries and through the action of bees and humming birds. Thus far, it is considered self compatible.
The seed of wild varieties is dispersed through explosive dehiscence of the pods during the dry period. In some wild populations there is a short latency; the seeds viability in natural conditions does not exceed three years.
Figure 3. Beans: A) Phaseolus coccineus; A1) legume; A2) seeds; B) P. acutifolius; B1) legume; B2) seeds
Ecology and phytogeography
Like P. polyanthus, P. coccineus tolerates higher precipitations than other species of Phaseolus (Table 3), provided that the soil has good drainage: that is with derivatives of volcanic ash, fine particles, etc. It grows at cooler temperatures than other cultivated species and is generally heliophytic. although it tolerates mists.
Table 3. Selected cultivated species of Phaseolus: altitude, daytime temperature, mean annual precipitation, duration of growth cycle from start to end of harvest, yield potential in tropical areas
| Species | Altitude (m) |
Temperature (°C) |
Precipitation (mm/year) |
Growth cycle (days) |
Yield (kg/ha) |
| Phaseolus coccineus | 1400–2800 | 12–22 | 400–2600 | 90–365 | 400–4000 |
| Phaseolus acutifolius | 50–1900 | 20–32 | 200–400 | 60–110 | 400–2000 |
| Phaseolus lunatus | 50–2800 | 16–26 | 0–2800 | 90–365 | 400–5000 |
| Phaseolus polyanthus | 800–2600 | 14–24 | 1000–2600 | 110–365 | 300–3500 |
| Phaseolus vulgaris | 50–3000 | 14–26 | 400–1600 | 70–330 | 400–5000 |
Its nuclear area extends from Durango to Veracruz and Puebla. In Guatemala. it is traditionally sown on the slopes of the Cuchumatanes range, on the high plateau of Huehuetenango up to Alta Verapaz and Sacatepéquez. and in the highest parts of the rest of Central America. The wild form of P. coccineus (although unable to be confirmed as ancestral throughout its distribution) extends from Chihuahua in Mexico to Panama, generally between 1400 and 2800 m in the humid high forest.
Genetic diversity
In its wild form, this species displays a great phenotypical variation in its current state of evolution. in contrast with the other wild species of the genus (there is some similarity with P. augusti of South America). Wild P. coccineus may be considered to be a complex of several forms, now in active speciation. throughout its distribution range. Some very differentiated forms, such as P. glabellus, may have become separated, constituting an early form of a group of which it is now difficult to distinguish all the variants. Allogamy is frequent in these plants, and the crossing of wild and cultivated forms, which have been displaced by humans, has changed the speciation patterns. Because of its active process of evolution, this species complex is not an easy task for the taxonomist but, by the same token, it offers great potential for the plant improver.
In addition to a group of four wild forms with scarlet flowers, mention should he made of another four forms with purple flowers. P. polyanthus is a related species at the boundary of the primary genetic stock of the scarlet runner bean, since in some cases it can be crossed with the later, as in Putumayo, Ecuador or in Imbabura, Colombia. Likewise, P. vulgaris may he considered to be at the boundary of the primary genetic stock of the scarlet runner bean.
There are only a few definite cultivars, particularly among the climbers; among the indeterminate shrubby cultivars, "Patol Blanco'' may be mentioned and, among the determinate shrub cultivars, ''Hammond's Dwarf".
There are risks of genetic erosion in areas where the traditional maize field has been changed, as some parts of Mexico (Chiapas, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz), Guatemala and Costa Rica. Along with maize, the three species of bean (P. coccineus, P. polyanthus and P. vulgaris) and gourds were frequently sown in these areas. In the high plateau of Mexico (Durango, Zacatecas), the recent spread of the kidney bean may displace the "patoles" for reasons of cost.
P. coccineus material exists in collections of germplasm, mainly in Chapingo in Mexico (INIFAP), Pullman in the United States (USDA) and Palmira in Colombia (CIAT). The cultivated material has already been collected to a great extent, except in some areas of Guatemala (for example. Quiche), Honduras and Costa Rica. where it may be already too late to make such a collection.
For the wild material. it is necessary to collect around the great cities of Mesoamerica, particularly in the valley of Mexico, since these areas were a centre of diversity of the P. coccineus, complex which is very rich in forms. Many areas still remain to be explored, in view of material collected compared with the abundant herbarium material available. The complications involved in handling these forms ex situ mean that they need to he conserved in situ.
Cultivation practices
In most of its area P. coccineus is sown with maize and other varieties or species (P. vulgaris, P. polyanthus) following documented practices, since precipitations allow their association. In Durango and Zacatecas (Mexico), under heavy rain conditions it is sown alone, either in widely spaced rows or broadcast. depending on the type of ploughing. Manual harvesting is still common; the pods are gathered and left to dry in the sun before being beaten and the seeds are stored in sacks.
Estimation of the yield in cultivated herds is difficult, since farmers intercrop P. coccineus with other beans or harvest it periodically. It produces 400 to 1000 kg per hectare in the shrubby forms while, for climbing varieties, the yield can be much higher (Table 3). In the United Kingdom, for crops with young pods, more than 23 tonnes per hectare have been recorded.
Prospects for improvement
The scarlet runner bean has been used on many occasions for improving the common bean but only in very few cases has its own improvement been addressed, although specialists agree on the hardiness of the species against several fungi, bacteria and viruses.
The delayed production of climbing forms may be considered a limitation. The number of shrubby forms is not sufficiently high (especially of those with white seeds) and several of them have a low yield. Not all colours and seed stocks exist in these varieties, and this is particularly the case with shrubby forms. Floral abscission can at times be considerable—perhaps because of the lack of pollinators—and causes yield losses.
Many cultivars root easily and can be maintained over several years thanks to their fleshy root. Their large attractive flowers make insect pollination easy (this crop may be assumed to have a positive effect on local entomofauna). A hybrid scarlet runner bean could be developed; however, unlike the kidney bean or the tepary bean, it is not known whether there would be a strong heterosis effect.
The use of the scarlet runner bean to complement maize in silage deserves investigation since, as well as its fodder value, the plant can limit soil erosion. It may also be useful interspersed in young forest or fruit plantations (to give soil protection, fertilizing value or additional income).
Because of its type of germination. P. coccineus is a useful species for fighting the bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) in the highlands of East Africa.
Phaseolus acutifolius
Botanical name: Phaseolus acutifolius
Family: Fabaceae
Common names. English: tepary bean: Mayan: xmayum (Mexico [Campeche]): Spanish tépari, (name of Opatan origin) (Mexico [Sonora]). escomite or escumite (Mexico [Chiapas]), frijol piñuelero (name of hybrid origin) (Costa Rica)
This species has been grown for a long time in Mesoamerica, mainly as a vegetable in desert zones or areas with a long dry period. Unlike the case of other cultivated species of the genus, P. acutifolius was first described in its wild form while the relationship with the cultivated form was recognized later Archaeological findings have shown that this species was grown in ancient times in the southeastern United States, where it apparently penetrated from Mexico 1200 years ago) and Puebla (where it existed 5000 years ago). Geographical distribution of the cultivated form extends from Arizona and New Mexico to Guanacaste, Costa Rica, on the dry subtropical slope of the Pacific. The distribution of P. acutifolius is sporadic, which is reflected in its market. The main product is a dry seed which is eaten because of its rich protein ( 17 to 27 percent) and carbohydrate content It is also used as a young tender string bean and as fodder after harvesting.
It is still not known precisely where the species was domesticated It should be noted that electrophoretic analyses of the phaseolin and isoenzymes indicate that the domesticated populations were few. Either because of its historic extinction, because the initial genetic base was already reduced at the time of its domestication or because of the autogamy of the species, the cultivated genetic potential does not seem to have been very extensive, to judge from its sub sequent development. Following are some of the causes that several authors have reported as having led to neglect of the tepary bean:
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the availability of cheap water in desert areas which enables the cultivation of fodder plants or garden produce and other vegetables of greater value (kidney bean, cowpea), as the tepary bean's yield remains the same or even diminishes with irrigation;
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the loss of eating traditions in indigenous communities;
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the shortage of demand on the big markets.
Its cultivation potential in desert areas is extensive and is still to be explored
Botanical description
P. acutifolius is a desert therophyte and is easily distinguished from other species of beans by its epigeal germination, sessile primary leaves, acute rhomboid folioles, pseudoracemes—with two to four fruit-bearing stems—small pink flowers (white in some cultivars) with very small triangular bracteoles and pods that have sutures marked with five to ten ovules Autogamy appears to be dominant Two wild forms are recognized: var. acutifolius with rhomboid folioles and var. tenuifolius with linear, sometimes sagittate, folioles. A third wild form appears sporadically with narrowly falcate folioles which. because they have different blastogenic characteristics from the var. tenuifolius and possess a certain incompatibility for crossing. could be considered a separate species (P. parvifolius).
Thc cultivated form, like the wild forms, has a short cycle, flowering 27 to 40 days after germination and ripening at 60 to 80 days. The plants wither completely (except P. parvifolius). In the wild forms, seeds are dispersed within a radius of 3 m by explosive dehiscence of the pods In some cultivars there is a brief postharvest latency of one month. The seeds of the wild plants germinate through the imbibition caused by the heavy desert rainfalls of the following year. However, only in some is germination staggered over three years.
Ecology and phytogeography
The cultivated form is found from 50 m to 1920 m above sea level. It requires an annual precipitation of 250 to 300 mm, although it is grown in Mexico in regions with a precipitation of 150 mm (Sonora) to 750 mm (Campeche). During the vegetative period, the daytime temperature can reach 20 to 32°C. It grows on well drained. sandy, muddy, sometimes organic soils with pH 6.7 to 7.1.
There is an ecological specialization in the wild forms of the tepary bean: var. acutifolius of Arizona, New Mexico, Lower California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa and Jalisco occupies semi-sunny habitats with the mesquite on the banks of streams. while var. tenuifolius colonizes the sunny slopes with cacti and thorny shrubs in Arizona, New Mexico, Lower California. Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Querétaro, Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca and Jalapa. The cultivated form is a heliophyte and has characteristics that allow it to tolerate excessive sun.
Genetic diversity
Compared with the kidney bean, there is less seed variability. Basically two forms occur: one with a fairly small, rounded, white or black seed; and another with a larger-sized angular, rhombohedric seed that may be white, greenish white, grey, bay, dark yellow, mahogany, black or purple-mottled or coffee in colour. The average weight of 100 cultivated tepary bean seeds is between 10 and 20 g and, for the wild form, between 2 and 5 g. Two cultivars have been cited: one is white (Redfield) and another is dark yellow. Both result from mass selection. Although the cultivated and wild materials do not have a definite habitat, a desert environment is necessary. Whereas the wild varieties are generally climbers with a few guide shoots (2 to 4 m in length), there are two cultivated groups: the indeterminate shrubby varieties with short guide leaves and the indeterminate creepers with long guide leaves, which climb if they find support. The author knows only one escape variety. The secondary genetic stock is not well known: the kidney bean may be considered to be within the tertiary stock.
A good number of cultivars from which collections have been made mainly in Mexico appear to be no longer sown. It seems unlikely that many more cultivated forms will be found but it would be useful to re-examine the southern area of distribution. This examination is an example of a germplasm collection programme that has enabled a good part of the crop's variability to be saved. The two wild forms represent the major source of variation for future improvement of the species. As some plant species are threatened by overgrazing, it would be advisable to collect germplasm from Nayarit to Jalapa.
Cultivation practices
In the southern area of its distribution, the rural communities have conserved P. acutifolius, particularly because of its early maturity and reduced cultivation requirements. It is sown on the edge of maize fields, at the start of the rains to obtain the green bean and at the end of the rains to obtain the seed, or on plots around houses in virtually any period. In the northern area of its distribution (southeastern United States, northeastern Mexico), it is sown under heavy rain conditions in small fields with a favourable topography or on the edges of streams, generally alone or with some gourds and tolerated weeds. After the first heavy downpour, the land is ploughed and then sown in rows or broadcast following the second downpour. The plants are pulled up when they reach maturity and are left to dry in the sun. One week later they are trodden on a clean surface while the seeds are collected and winnowed with a basket. The seeds used to be stored in baskets or clay vessels (nowadays in tins or plastic bags), thus maintaining their germinating capacity for three years. In Campeche, to store seed for sowing, packets are made with the unopened pods and placed in contact with the smoke of embers.
Yields are estimated to be 200 to 900 kg per hectare, with wide variations depending on sowing density and rainfall. About 1000 to 2000 kg per hectare are obtained with fertilizer, with harvests of up to 4 tonnes per hectare.
Prospects for improvement
The tepary bean is considered to be a useful species for improving the kidney bean (it is not attacked by mildew or smut, Xanthomonas phaseoli), but no programmes have been carried out for improving the tepary bean itself. Unlike many leguminous vegetables, it gives an acceptable yield with less than 400 mm of annual precipitation. Its small seed size could be corrected by improving the species; the variability in colours and seed standards could also be increased. A pronounced heterosis is noticed when lines are crossed and there is a possibility of hybrid tepary beans being produced (it would be necessary to determine whether the secondary stock would make it possible to increase the flower's attractability to insects1). Some populations are susceptible to rust, oidium, mildew, root rot, leafminers, bruchids and leafhoppers. Some lines have good or excellent levels of resistance to these pests and diseases. In cultivation, the germplasm has proved susceptible to high temperatures, acidity, aluminum toxicity and common mosaic diseases.
Its potential for introduction into desert areas (the American tropics, the Sahel, the Near East, India) is considerable but it has not been exploited. For example, in July 1985, the author sent a small sample of tepary bean plants to Chincha in Peru for evaluation; in 1989 one of the tepary beans was already being sold under the name of cuarenteno in Chiclayo. In many areas its use as a cover plant or as a crop merged with millet (Pennisetum sp.), prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), mesquite (Prosopis sp.) and jojoba (Simmondsia sp.), for human or animal consumption, has not been exploited either. It should be possible to use it as a postharvest crop when temperatures are still favourable and residual humidity is low. One of the main reasons for promoting cultivation of the tepary bean is to limit the use of water in subdesert areas.
Research should be orientated towards increasing the collection of germplasm; distributing seed from gene banks to farmers; divulging information through agricultural extension services on the cultivation potential of the tepary bean in dry zones; setting up seed improvement projects; developing food technologies suited to leguminous vegetables (for example, industrial processing of proteins), which would free the farmer from market requirements; and promoting information on the methods of consumption in order to re-upgrade the use of this legume.
1No cytoplasmatic androsterility or agents re-establishing fertility have been recorded in P acutifolius.
Phaseolus lunatus
Botanical name: Phaseolus lunatus L.
Family: Fabaceae
Common names. English: butter bean, Lima bean, Burma bean, duffin bean, Rangoon bean
There are two main genetic stocks domesticated from two separate wild forms and with morphotypes from a different seed.
Common names of the small-seed cultivars (24 to 70 g per 100 seeds). Mayan: ib (Mexico [Yucatán]); patashete (Mexico [Chiapas]); ixtapacal (Guatemala [Suchitepéquez]); Spanish: sieva, comba (Colombia [Guerrero]), furuna (Mexico [Jalapa]), chilipuca (El Salvador), kedeba (Costa Rica), frijol caballero (Cuba), haba (Puerto Rico, Panama), carauta (Colombia [Atlantic]), frijol de año (Colombia [Tolima]), guaracaro (Venezuela); French: pois souche (Haiti)
The Caribbean group is made up of small, round seed material distributed in that area.
Common names of the large-seed cultivars (54 to 280 g per 100 seeds). Spanish: lima (because of its origin from the coast of Peru), torta (Colombia [Nariño, Huila], Ecuador [Imbabura, Azuay, Loja]), layo (Peru [Cajamarca]), pallar (Peru [Lambayeque, La Libertad, Lima, Ica, parts of the range]), palato (Bolivia [Chuquisacal), poroto manteca (Argentina)
Archaeological findings in An